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MICROBIOLOGY
DIAGRAMS ARE NECESSARY
2)MARKS
1)LIST THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF LOUIS PAUSTER
Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C.
2) KOCH POSTULATES
Koch's postulates are as follows:
The bacteria must be present in every case of the disease.
The bacteria must be isolated from the host with the disease and grown in pure culture.
The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the bacteria is inoculated into a healthy susceptible host.
3) NAME 2 CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek used single-lens microscopes, which he made, to make the first observations of bacteria and protozoa. His extensive research on the growth of small animals such as fleas, mussels, and eels helped disprove the theory of spontaneous generation of life
.Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was one of the first people to observe microorganisms, using a microscope of his own design, and made one of the most important contributions to biology. ... He also found that new microorganisms could settle only in a broth if the broth was exposed to the air.
4) CONTRIBUTIONS OF JOSEPH LISTER
Josef Lister was a british surgeon who discovered the antiseptic spray that could prevent the microbial infections after the sugery. He was a pioneer in preventive medcine. He use carbolic acid spray to prevent the spread of infections. He was reknowned like Luis Pasteur and Robert koch and Alexander Flemming.
Acknowledged as the “Father of Antiseptic Surgery”, Joseph Lister's contributions paved the way to safer medical procedures. His introduction of the antiseptic process dramatically decreased deaths from childbirth and surgery and changed the way the medical industry looked at sanitation and proper hygiene.
5) CONTRIBUTIONS OF METCHNIOFF
In 1908, he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Paul Ehrlich for their contributions to immunology. Mechnikov discovered phagocytes, immune cells that protect organisms by ingesting foreign particles or microorganisms, by conducting experiments on starfish larvae.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (Russian: Илья Ильич Мечников, also written as Élie Metchnikoff; 15 May [O.S. 3 May] 1845 – 15 July 1916) was a Russian zoologist best known for his pioneering research in immunology. In particular, he is credited with the discovery of phagocytes (macrophages) in 1882.
6)ALEXANDER FLEMING CONTRIBUTIONS
The Scottish microbiologist Alexander Fleming was a medical scientist who discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic. ... In 1928 Fleming observed that a mould which had accidentally grown in a Petri dish with a culture of bacteria had killed the germs around it. He called the active substance in the mould 'penicillin'.
7)TYES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE
Types of infection include bacterial, fungal, viral, protozoan, parasitic, and prion disease. They are classified by the type of organism causing the infection.
8) FOUR KILLED VACCINES
Viral: polio vaccine (Salk vaccine) and influenza vaccine. Bacterial: typhoid vaccine, cholera vaccine, plague vaccine, and pertussis vaccine.
9) MENTION 4 LIVE ATTENUATED VACCINES
Examples. Examples of attenuated vaccines include: Viral: measles vaccine, mumps vaccine, rubella vaccine, live attenuated influenza vaccine (the seasonal flu nasal spray and the 2009 H1N1 flu nasal spray), chicken pox vaccine, smallpox vaccine, oral polio vaccine (Sabin), rotavirus vaccine, and yellow fever vaccine.
10) WHAT ARE THE IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASE, GIVE 2 EXAMPLES
Immune complex diseases encompass a diverse group of inflammatory conditions characterised by antigen–antibody deposition and attendant activation of complement. Common manifestations include glomerulonephritis, synovitis and dermal vasculitis. Many patients present with constitutional symptoms and less specific signs.
EXAMPLES
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Polyarteritis
11) WHAT IS PSEUDOMEMBRANE, IN WHICH DISEASE IT SEEN
The pseudomembrane is characterized by the formation of a dense, gray debris layer composed of a mixture of dead cells, fibrin, RBCs, WBCs, and organisms; the pseudomembrane is shown in the image below. The characteristic thick membrane of diphtheria infection in the posterior pharynx
12) WHAT IS ASYMOMATIC BACTERIURIA
Asymptomatic bacteriuria is defined as the presence of a significant bacterial colony count in urine (≥105 colony-forming units/mL of a single bacterial species) in the absence of any of the typical signs or symptoms of a urinary tract infection.
13) NAME THE BACTERIA CAUSING POST OPERATIVE WOUND INFECTION
The most common causative organisms associated with wound infections include Staphylococcus aureus/MRSA, Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
14) BACTERIA CAUSING WOUND INFECTION
Etiology. Most infected wounds are caused by bacterial colonization, originating either from the normal flora on the skin, or bacteria from other parts of the body or the outside environment. The most common infection-causing bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus and other types of staphylococci.
15) NAME THE ANAEROBIC BACTERIA CAUSING WOUND INFECTION
The most common aerobic and facultative bacteria are Escherichia coli, Streptococcus spp. (including Enterococcus spp.), and the most frequently isolated anaerobic bacteria are the B. fragilis group, Peptostreptococcus spp., and Clostridium spp.
16) LIST THE ORGANISM CAUSING GENITAL ULCERS
The principal causative organisms are Treponema pallidum (syphilis), Haemophilus ducreyi (chancroid) and Herpes simplex (genital herpes). Chlamydia trachomatis (lymphogranuloma venereum) and Calymmatobacterium granulomatis (donovanosis) 1 are less frequent.
17) TUBERCULIN TEST
Tuberculin, also known as purified protein derivative, is a combination of proteins that are used in the diagnosis of tuberculosis.[1] This use is referred to as the tuberculin skin test and is recommended only for those at high risk.[2] Injection is done into the skin.[2] After 48 to 72 hours if there is more than a five to ten millimeter area of swelling the test is considered positive
18) MANTOUX TEST
The Mantoux test or Mendel–Mantoux test (also known as the Mantoux screening test, tuberculin sensitivity test, Pirquet test, or PPD test for purified protein derivative) is a tool for screening for tuberculosis (TB) and for tuberculosis diagnosis. It is one of the major tuberculin skin tests used around the world, largely replacing multiple-puncture tests such as the tine test. The Heaf test, a form of tine test, was used until 2005 in the UK, when it was replaced by the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test is endorsed by the American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It was also used in the USSR and is now prevalent in most of the post-Soviet states.
19) SALK VACCINE
An inactivated polio vaccine, developed a few years later by Jonas Salk,Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication,[14] since no long-term carrier state exists for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no nonprimate reservoir in nature,[15] and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote.
20) SABIN VACCINE
a polio vaccine that is taken by mouth and contains the three serotypes of poliovirus in a weakened, live state. — called also Sabin oral vaccine. — compare salk vaccine. Comments on Sabin vaccine.
5MARKS
1) PASTEURIZATION
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which water and certain packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life. The process is intended to destroy or deactivate organisms and enzymes that contribute to spoilage or risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria, but not bacterial spores.[1][2] Since pasteurization is not sterilization, and does not kill spores, a second "double" pasteurization will extend the quality by killing spores that have germinated.
The process was named after the French microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, whose research in the 1880s demonstrated that thermal processing would inactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine.[2][3] Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety.[3]
Most liquid products are heat treated in a continuous system where heat can be applied using a plate heat exchanger or the direct or indirect use of hot water and steam. Due to the mild heat, there are minor changes to the nutritional quality and sensory characteristics of the treated foods.[4] Pascalization or high pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric field (PEF) are non-thermal processes that are also used to pasteurize foods.
2) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXOTOXIN AND ENDOTOXIN
EXOTOXIN
An exotoxin is a toxin secreted by bacteria.[1] An exotoxin can cause damage to the host by destroying cells or disrupting normal cellular metabolism. They are highly potent and can cause major damage to the host. Exotoxins may be secreted, or, similar to endotoxins, may be released during lysis of the cell. Gram negative pathogens may secrete outer membrane vesicles containing lipopolysaccharide endotoxin and some virulence proteins in the bounding membrane along with some other toxins as intra-vesicular contents, thus adding a previously unforeseen dimension to the well-known eukaryote process of membrane vesicle trafficking, which is quite active at the host-pathogen interface.
They may exert their effect locally or produce systemic effects. Well-known exotoxins include: botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum; Corynebacterium diphtheriae toxin, produced during life-threatening symptoms of diphtheria; tetanospasmin produced by Clostridium tetani. The toxic properties of most exotoxins can be inactivated by heat or chemical treatment to produce a toxoid. These retain their antigenic specificity and can be used to produce antitoxins and, in the case of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, are used as vaccines.
ENDOTOXIN
Pyrogens are fever-causing agents. Endotoxin is a type of pyrogen and is a component of the exterior cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria, like E. coli (see image). Endotoxin is a lipopolysaccharide or LPS. LPS consists of the lipid A portion containing fatty acids and disaccharide phosphates, core polysaccharides and the O-antigen (see image). The lipid A portion of LPS is the cause of the molecule’s endotoxin activity. While lipid A does not directly harm any tissue, the immune cells of humans and animals alike see it as an indicator for the presence of bacteria. Thus, these cells stimulate a response that is meant to fend off the unwelcome intruders. This reaction is entirely innate, i.e. no previous exposure to endotoxin is required. Furthermore, it may intriguingly serve in keeping our beneficial intestinal bacteria inside as much as in preventing major entrance of pathogenic bacteria from outside.
3) BACTERIAL VACCINES
refer book
4) ENTEROTOXIGENIC E. COLI
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a type of Escherichia coli and one of the leading bacterial causes of diarrhea
Treatment for ETEC infection includes rehydration therapy and antibiotics, although ETEC is frequently resistant to common antibiotics.[2] Improved sanitation is also key. Since the transmission of this bacterium is fecal contamination of food and water supplies, one way to prevent infection is by improving public and private health facilities. Another simple prevention of infection is by drinking factory bottled water—this is especially important for travelers and traveling military—though it may not be feasible in developing countries, which carry the greatest disease burden.
CONTENT NEEDS ADDITIONAL REFERENCE...
5) WIDAL TEST
The Widal test is one method that may be used to help make a presumptive diagnosis of enteric fever, also known as typhoid fever. Although the test is no longer commonly performed in the United States or other developed countries, it is still in use in many emerging nations where enteric fever is endemic and limited resources require the use of rapid, affordable testing alternatives. While the method is easy to perform, concerns remain about the reliability of the Widal test. It is not specific for typhoid fever and can be positive when a person does not have the infection.
Enteric fever is a life-threatening illness caused by infection with the bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. typhi), usually transmitted through food and drinks contaminated with fecal matter. It is associated with symptoms that include high fever, fatigue, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhea or constipation, weight loss, and a rash known as "rose spots." Early diagnosis and treatment are important because serious complications, including severe intestinal bleeding or perforation, can develop within a few weeks.
6) LAB DIAGNOSIS OF WOUND INFECTION
Wound and skin infections are the growth and spread of microbes, usually bacteria, within the skin or a break or wound in the skin. These infections trigger the body's immune system and cause inflammation and tissue damage within the skin or wound and slow the healing process.
Many infections remain confined to a small area, such as an infected scratch or hair follicle, and usually resolve on their own. Others may persist
A wound culture is the process of placing a microorganism in an environment conducive to cell growth, such as a broth or an agar plate. There are several different types of wound cultures:
Tissue biopsy involves removal of a small sample of tissue from a wound for examination. It is usually performed by a physician but may also be performed by other trained professionals.
Bone biopsy is a type of tissue biopsy; a bone biopsy is the most accurate way to diagnose infection in the bone (osteomyelitis). Bone biopsies are always performed by physicians.
An advantage of tissue biopsy is that it is a very reliable method of wound culture, especially compared to swab cultures. However, there are disadvantages, including risk of bleeding and introduction of infection due to the fact that it is an invasive procedure.
Swab cultures sample the wound surface, along with small amounts of wound fluid expressed from the wound or obtained from areas of tunneling or undermining, in order to quantify the amount/number and type of bacteria present on a wound (the wound needs to be cleansed before swabbing takes place). Swab cultures can be performed by nurses and other health professionals without a physician’s order when infection is suspected.
Swab cultures are the most commonly used method to culture wounds due to the fact that they are easy to perform, do not cause trauma to the wound bed and avoid a surgical procedure that can result in complications. A disadvantage of swab cultures is that they only sample the surface of wounds, therefore results may reflect only surface contamination or colonization.
Fluid aspiration utilizes a small needle to withdraw fluid within the wound for laboratory analysis. This procedure is usually reserved for physicians.
7) HOSPITAL ACQUIRED URINARY TRACT INFECTION
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) account for the majority of hospital-acquired infections (HAI), and most of these occur in catheterized patients. However, for most the presence of bacteria in the urine (bacteriuria) is asymptomatic, yet in many institutional and national surveillance studies it is still attributed as ‘infection’. Although guidance is that only symptomatic UTI should be treated, except in pregnancy, bacteriuria in catheterized patients is frequently overinvestigated and antibiotics overused. Most infections are caused by enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli, but other bacteria such as Proteus mirabilis and staphylococci are more prominent in HAI. Aseptic technique for catheter insertion and during subsequent catheter care together with minimizing catheter duration are very important to prevent catheter-associated UTI (CAUTI). Prophylactic antibiotics should be avoided. National and international action to adopt evidence-based consensus protocols for management of catheterized patients and judicial use of antimicrobial chemotherapy promise to be of greatest benefit.
8) INFECTION CONTROL POLICY
Infection prevention and control (IPC) is a scientific approach and practical solution designed to prevent harm caused by infection to patients and health workers. It is grounded in infectious diseases, epidemiology, social science and health system strengthening. IPC occupies a unique position in the field of patient safety and quality universal health coverage since it is relevant to health workers and patients at every single health-care encounter.
No country, no health-care facility, even within the most advanced and sophisticated health-care systems, can claim to be free of the problem of health care-associated infections. The need for having IPC programmes nationally and at the facility level is clearly reinforced within the WHO 100 Core Health Indicators list.
9) LAB DIAGNOSIS OF PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS
Active tuberculosis
Diagnosing active tuberculosis based only on signs and symptoms is difficult,[67] as is diagnosing the disease in those who have a weakened immune system.[68] A diagnosis of TB should, however, be considered in those with signs of lung disease or constitutional symptoms lasting longer than two weeks.[68] A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation.[68] Interferon-γ release assays and tuberculin skin tests are of little use in the developing world.[69][70] Interferon gamma release assays (IGRA) have similar limitations in those with HIV.[70][71]
A definitive diagnosis of TB is made by identifying M. tuberculosis in a clinical sample (e.g., sputum, pus, or a tissue biopsy). However, the difficult culture process for this slow-growing organism can take two to six weeks for blood or sputum culture.[72] Thus, treatment is often begun before cultures are confirmed.[73]
Nucleic acid amplification tests and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB.[67] These tests, however, are not routinely recommended, as they rarely alter how a person is treated.[73] Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive, so they are not recommended.
latent tuberculosis
The Mantoux tuberculin skin test is often used to screen people at high risk for TB.[68] Those who have been previously immunized with the Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine may have a false-positive test result.[75] The test may be falsely negative in those with sarcoidosis, Hodgkin's lymphoma, malnutrition, and most notably, active tuberculosis.[14] Interferon gamma release assays, on a blood sample, are recommended in those who are positive to the Mantoux test.[73] These are not affected by immunization or most environmental mycobacteria, so they generate fewer false-positive results.[76] However, they are affected by M. szulgai, M. marinum, and M. kansasii.[77] IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone.[78]
The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has recommended screening people who are at high risk for latent tuberculosis with either tuberculin skin tests or interferon-gamma release assays.[79] While some have recommend testing health care workers, evidence of benefit for this is poor as of 2019.[80] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stopped recommending yearly testing of health care workers without known exposure in 2019.[81]
10) BCG VACCINE
The formulation of international requirements for the manufacture and control of BCG vaccine was first considered by the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization in its thirteenth report. In its fourteenth report, the Committee requested WHO to make arrangements as soon as possible for the formulation of such requirements. These requirements were approved by the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization at its eighteenth meeting and appeared as Annex 1 to its report.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the ethiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), is a leading cause of human disease and death, particularly in developing countries. In the global context, TB in intimately linked to poverty, and control of TB is ultimately a question of justice and human rights. In some areas with a high burden of TB, existing strategies for TB control are currently overwhelmed by the rising numbers of cases of TB occurring in parallel with or the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Emerging mycobacterial drug resistance is further complicating the situation. After decades of steady decline, the incidence of TB is also increasing in industralized countries, mainly as the result of outbreaks in particularly vulnerable groups.
The bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine has existed for 80 years and is one of the most widely used of all current vaccines, reading >80%of neonates and infants in countries where it is part of the national childhood immunization programme. BCG vaccine has a documented protective effect against meningitis and disseminated TB in children. It does not prevent primary infection and, more importantly, does not prevent reactivation of latent pulmonary infection, the principal source of bacillary spread in the community. The impact of BCG vaccination on transmission of Mtb is therefore limited.
11) SENITIVITY TESTING FOR MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis continues to be a major health problem worldwide, affecting millions of people each year. Accurate and rapid diagnosis is key to controlling the disease, yet the traditional tests for TB produce results that are either inaccurate or take too long to be definitive. A fast and reliable diagnostic method that would differentiate between active and latent TB infection is also lacking. The current routine diagnostic tests for TB - chest x-ray, tissue culture, tuberculin skin test (TST) and acid-fast staining - all have their limitations. A chest x-ray alone is inconclusive; a tissue culture takes too long to produce a result; the TST lacks specificity and reliability; and acid-fast staining depends on a large number of bacteria in the sputum to give an accurate reading. Serological tests using different TB antigens to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection are fast but lack the desired sensitivity. New methods have been developed, such as nucleic acid amplification technology which, although specific, can yield false-positive results. Immunologic tests (QuantiFERON and T-SPOT.TB), which measure the production of IFN-gamma by TB-specific T lymphocytes after encountering M. tuberculosis antigens, have certain advantages over the conventional tests, but they also have their disadvantages and unanswered questions. The need remains for a cost-effective, accurate and rapid method of diagnosing both active and latent TB infection
12) PULSE POLIO IMMUNIZATION
Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India to eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against the polio virus. The project fights polio through a large-scale, pulse vaccination programme and monitoring for poliomyelitis cases.
Steps involved[edit]
Setting up of booths in all parts of the country.[3]
Initialising walk-in cold rooms, freezer rooms, deep freezers, ice-lined refrigerators and cold boxes for a steady supply of vaccine to booths.
Arranging employees, volunteers, and vaccines.
Ensuring vaccine vial monitor on each vaccine vial.
Immunising children with OPV on national immunisation days.
Identifying missing children from immunisation process.
Surveillance of efficacy.
13) ORAL POLIO VACCINE
OPV consists of a mixture of live attenuated poliovirus strains of each of the three serotypes, selected by their ability to mimic the immune response following infection with wild polioviruses, but with a significantly reduced incidence of spreading to the central nervous system. Three or more spaced doses of OPV are required to generate adequate levels of seroconversion. The action of oral polio vaccine (OPV) is two-pronged. OPV produces antibodies in the blood ('humoral' or serum immunity) to all three types of poliovirus, and in the event of infection, this protects the individual against polio paralysis by preventing the spread of poliovirus to the nervous system. OPV strains also produce a local immune response in the lining ('mucous membrane') of the intestines - the primary site for poliovirus multiplication. The antibodies produced there inhibit the multiplication of subsequent infections of 'wild' (naturally occurring) virus. This intestinal immune response to OPV is probably a reason why mass campaigns with OPV have been shown to stop person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus. In very rare cases, the administration of OPV results in vaccine-associated paralysis associated with a reversion of the vaccine strains to the more neurovirulent profile of wild poliovirus. In a few instances, such vaccine strains have become both neurovirulent and transmissible and have resulted in infectious poliomyelitis.
14) NON SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
defense system starts with non-specific immunity, also known as innate immunity. This system is comprised of general mechanisms your body deploys every day to keep you safe. They are always working in the background, no matter what pathogens you are exposed to. They don't discriminate who they fight!
There are many types of non-specific immunity. One of the largest examples is your skin, which forms a tough, mechanical barrier that serves as the initial barrier to keep pathogens out. Your skin cells actually secrete small proteins that destroy viruses as well. Other barriers to pathogens include: small hairs inside your lungs that filter out bacteria inside mucus, the acid your stomach secretes to break down food and any pathogens that enter through your food, and specialized lining in delicate body parts, like your lungs. Below is a micrograph taken of cilia lining the tissue in your lungs.
There are also specialized immune cells that fight intruders once inside the body. The first type of cell is a macrophage, which patrols the body through your blood. When an invader enters, the macrophages move into the tissue like soldiers and remove the threat by swallowing the pathogen and digesting it in a process called phagocytosis,
Basophils are cells that secrete chemicals called histamines, which call more immune cells to the scene. T-cells are a type of immune cell that works in both the non-specific and specific immune system. There are three types of T-cells, helper T-cells, cytotoxic T-cells and natural killer T-cells. Only natural killer T-cells are part of the non-specific immune system.
Natural killer T-cells find and destroy pathogens in the body. They look for cells that do not resemble host cells and destroy them by releasing chemicals that cause the pathogen to break down. They do this to all foreign cells, not specific ones, so they belong in the non-specific immune system.
15) HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery. The existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE.[7] Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted the existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire.[8] Jain scriptures describe nigodas which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life, said to pervade every part of the universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals.[9] The Roman Marcus Terentius Varro made references to microbes when he warned against locating a homestead in the vicinity of swamps "because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and thereby cause serious diseases."[10]
In the golden age of Islamic civilization, Iranian scientists hypothesized the existence of microorganisms, such as Avicenna in his book The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Zuhr (also known as Avenzoar) who discovered scabies mites, and Al-Razi who gave the earliest known description of smallpox in his book The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi).[11]
In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission.[12]
16) ANTISEPTICS
Antiseptics (from Greek ἀντί anti, "against"[1] and σηπτικός sēptikos, "putrefactive"[2]) are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. Antiseptics are generally distinguished from antibiotics by the latter's ability to safely destroy bacteria within the body, and from disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.[3]
Some antiseptics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes (bacteriocidal), while others are bacteriostatic and only prevent or inhibit their growth.[4]
Antibacterials include antiseptics that have the proven ability to act against bacteria. Microbicides which destroy virus particles are called viricides or antivirals. Antifungals, also known as an antimycotics, are pharmaceutical fungicides used to treat and prevent mycosis (fungal infection).
17) ANAEROBIC INFECTIONS
Anaerobic infections are common infections caused by anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria occur naturally and are the most common flora in the body. In their natural state, they don't cause infection. But they can cause infections after an injury or trauma to the body.
Anaerobic infections are caused by anaerobic bacteria. Obligately anaerobic bacteria do not grow on solid media in room air (0.04% carbon dioxide and 21% oxygen); facultatively anaerobic bacteria can grow in the presence or absence of air. Microaerophilic bacteria do not grow at all aerobically or grow poorly, but grow better under 10% carbon dioxide or anaerobically. Anaerobic bacteria can be divided into strict anaerobes that can not grow in the presence of more than 0.5% oxygen and moderate anaerobic bacteria that are able of growing between 2 and 8% oxygen.[1] Anaerobic bacteria usually do not possess catalase, but some can generate superoxide dismutase which protects them from oxygen
Examples of anaerobic organisms include:
Actinomyces.
Clostridium.
Propionibacterium.
Bifidobacterium.
Bacteroides.
Fusobacterium.
Prevotella.
