BIO-CHEMISTRY
DIAGRAMS ARE NECESSERY
SHORT NOTES
(5 Marks)
1) TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES
There are two main types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. Both types of diabetes are chronic diseases that affect the way your body regulates blood sugar, or glucose. Glucose is the fuel that feeds your body’s cells, but to enter your cells it needs a key. Insulin is that key.
People with type 1 diabetes don’t produce insulin. You can think of it as not having a key.
People with type 2 diabetes don’t respond to insulin as well as they should and later in the disease often don’t make enough insulin. You can think of this as having a broken key.
Both types of diabetes can lead to chronically high blood sugar levels. That increases the risk of diabetes complications.
Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, hunger, fatigue and blurred vision.
TYPE 1 DIABETES:
A chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin.
It typically appears in adolescence.
Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, hunger, fatigue and blurred vision.
Treatment aims at maintaining normal blood sugar levels through regular monitoring, insulin therapy, diet and exercise.
Treatment consists of insulin
Treatment aims at maintaining normal blood sugar levels through regular monitoring, insulin therapy, diet and exercise.
TYPE 2 DIABETES:
A chronic condition that affects the way the body processes blood sugar (glucose).
With type 2 diabetes, the body either doesn't produce enough insulin, or it resists insulin.
Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, hunger, fatigue and blurred vision. In some cases, there may be no symptoms.
Treatments include diet, exercise, medication and insulin therapy.
Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, hunger, fatigue and blurred vision. In some cases, there may be no symptoms.
Treatments include diet, exercise, medication and insulin therapy.
2) LABORAORY INVESTIGATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS
Laboratory evaluations used to screen for, diagnose, and monitor DM include a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, a hemoglobin A1c (A1c) test, and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Individuals diagnosed with DM or GDM require regular laboratory evaluation to assist in glycemic management and to monitor for the development of diabetes-related complications.
Anyone with a body mass index higher than 25 (23 for Asian-Americans), regardless of age, who has additional risk factors, such as high blood pressure, abnormal cholesterol levels, a sedentary lifestyle, a history of polycystic ovary syndrome or heart disease, and having a close relative with diabetes.
Anyone older than age 45 is advised to receive an initial blood sugar screening, and then, if the results are normal, to be screened every three years thereafter.
Any woman who has had gestational diabetes, is advised to be screened for diabetes every three years
3) PROTEINS DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION'WITH EXAMPLE
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells, and organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific 3D structure that determines its activity.
CLASSIFICATION:
Classification
Proteins can be classified as:
(a) Simple proteins. On hydrolysis they yield only the amino acids and occasional small carbohydrate compounds. Examples are: albumins, globulins, glutelins, albuminoids, histones and protamines.
(b) Conjugated proteins. These are simple proteins combined with some non-protein material in the body. Examples are: nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, phosphoproteins, haemoglobins and lecithoproteins.
(c) Derived proteins. These are proteins derived from simple or conjugated proteins by physical or chemical means. Examples are: denatured proteins and peptides.
Examples of fibrous proteins are:
Actin
Arp2/3
Collagen
Coronin
Dystrphin
Elastin
F-spondin
Fibronectin
Keratin
Myosin
Nebulin
Pikachurin
Spectrin
Tau
Titin
Tropomyosin
Tubulin
4) CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS WITH THEIR EXAMPLES
Nonpolar, Aliphatic amino acids: The R groups in this class of amino acids are nonpolar and hydrophobic. Glycine, Alanine, Valine, leucine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Proline.
Aromatic amino acids: Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, with their aromatic side chains, are relatively nonpolar (hydrophobic). All can participate in hydrophobic interactions.
Polar, Uncharged amino acids: The R groups of these amino acids are more soluble in water, or more hydrophilic, than those of the nonpolar amino acids, because they contain functional groups that form hydrogen bonds with water. This class of amino acids includes serine, threonine, cysteine, asparagine, and glutamine.
Acidic amino acids: Amino acids in which R-group is acidic or negatively charged. Glutamic acid and Aspartic acid
Basic amino acids: Amino acids in which R-group is basic or positively charged. Lysine, Arginine, Histidine
5) CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACID WITH EXAMPLES
Fatty acids are classified according to the presence and number of double bonds in their carbon chain. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) contain no double bonds, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) contain one, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) contain more than one double bond.
Length of fatty acids[edit]
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons (e.g. butyric acid).[6]
Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6 to 12[7] carbons, which can form medium-chain triglycerides.
Long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons.[8]
Very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons.
Saturated fatty acids[edit]
Main article: Saturated fat
For a more comprehensive list, see List of saturated fatty acids.
Saturated fatty acids have no C=C double bonds. They have the same formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH, with variations in "n". An important saturated fatty acid is stearic acid (n = 16), which when neutralized with lye is the most common form of soap
6) ENZYMES OF MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION
refer book
7) ABSORPTION OF CALCIUM
Calcium Supplementation
All calcium ingested is not absorbed into the body. The small intestine, which is the part of the digestive system just beyond the stomach, is where calcium is taken by the blood and transported to bone and other tissues. The amount of calcium absorbed is dependent on several key factors:
Amount of calcium already in the blood
Form of calcium (diet or formulation)
Small intestine conditions
Calcium typically comes as a liquid or tablet carbonate or citric acid preparation. The carbonate requires acid in the intestine that generally is generated with food in the stomach. Therefore, carbonate pills should be taken with meals by people taking calcium to increase calcium absorption. Calcium citrate is soluble and does not require meals for absorption. Most commonly used calcium supplements come as a carbonate form and should be taken during or immediately after meals. Check the label of your calcium supplement to determine which form you have and when to take it.
Approximately 500 milligrams of calcium can be taken at one time. Therefore, do not take all supplements at the same time. If you and your doctor have agreed you need supplementation, be sure to take it three times a day or approximately one-third at a time. To avoid taking too much, do not take more than 2,500 milligrams per day.
8) REGULATION OF CALCIUM
The parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low.
PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, which break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream.
PTH increases blood calcium levels by increasing the amount of calcium resorbed by the kidneys before it can be excreted in the urine.
PTH increases blood calcium levels by triggering the formation of calcitriol, which increases absorption of dietary calcium through the intestines.
Calcitonin, a hormone produced by the thyroid, acts in opposition to PTH by inhibiting osteoclasts, stimulating osteoblasts, and increasing excretion of calcium into the urine by the kidneys.
9) HORMONAL CONTROL OF CALCIUM LEVEL
The extracellular fluid (or plasma) calcium concentration is tightly controlled by a complex homeostatic mechanism involving fluxes of calcium between the extracellular fluid (ECF)1 and the kidney, bone, and gut. These fluxes are carefully regulated by three major hormones: parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D3]. Important cellular functions are dependent on the maintenance of the extracellular calcium concentration within a narrow range (1). Disturbances of this tightly regulated homeostatic system leads to disorders of calcium metabolism that have predictable effects, which can be ascribed to effects on these cellular functions.
The approximate fluxes of calcium into and out of the ECF that occur during each 24-h period are shown in Fig. 1 . Usually, bone mineral accretion equals skeletal mineral resorption, and calcium content in the urine approximates that of net intestinal absorption. An average Western diet provides a calcium intake of ∼1 g of elemental calcium per day. Typically, ∼30% (300 mg) is absorbed, the majority across the small intestine and a small percentage in the colon (2)(3). Because gut secretion of calcium is relatively constant at 150 mg per day, the net calcium absorption is ∼150 mg per day for a healthy adult in normal calcium balance. Calcium absorbed from the gut enters the blood and is filtered by the kidney. The majority of filtered calcium (>98%) is reabsorbed in the proximal renal tubules; thus, only 150 mg per day is excreted in healthy individuals (4).
10) HYPO&HYPERCALCEMIA
HYPOCALCEMIA:
A condition in which the blood has too little calcium.
Hypocalcaemia can be caused by lack of vitamin D. It can also signal a condition of the four small glands in the neck (the parathyroid glands), the kidneys or the pancreas.
Most cases have no symptoms. In severe cases, symptoms include muscle cramps, confusion and tingling in the lips and fingers.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Most cases have no symptoms. In severe cases, symptoms include muscle cramps, confusion and tingling in the lips and fingers.
Treatment consists of supplements
Treatment includes calcium and vitamin D supplements. If there's an underlying condition, that will also need treatment.
HYPERCALCEMIA:
Too much calcium in the blood.
Hypercalcaemia is most often caused by overactivity in the four tiny glands in the neck (parathyroid glands) or from cancer. Extra calcium in the blood affects many bodily systems.
Symptoms of hypercalcaemia range from mild to severe. They may include increased thirst and urination, stomach pain, nausea, bone pain, muscle weakness, confusion and fatigue.
Treatment may include drugs or surgical removal of an overactive gland.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms of hypercalcaemia range from mild to severe. They may include increased thirst and urination, stomach pain, nausea, bone pain, muscle weakness, confusion and fatigue.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the abdomen or bones
Whole body: dehydration, fatigue, loss of appetite, or thirst
Gastrointestinal: constipation or nausea
Also common: excess urination, mental confusion, muscle weakness, or weight loss
Treatment varies
Treatment may include drugs or surgical removal of an overactive gland.
11) IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia, and it occurs when your body doesn't have enough of the mineral iron. Your body needs iron to make hemoglobin. When there isn't enough iron in your blood stream, the rest of your body can't get the amount of oxygen it needs.
Too few healthy red blood cells due to too little iron in the body.
Without enough iron, red blood cells can't carry enough oxygen to body tissues.
Iron deficiency often causes low blood cell levels (anaemia) and can delay the development of unborn babies.
Treatment includes iron supplements and a focus on any underlying causes.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Iron deficiency often causes low blood cell levels (anaemia) and can delay the development of unborn babies.
People may experience:
Whole body: dizziness, fatigue, lethargy, light-headedness, or malaise
Also common: brittle nails, hair loss, headache, irritability, restless legs syndrome, or shortness of breath
Treatment consists of supplements
Treatment includes iron supplements and a focus on any underlying causes.
12) FUNCTION OF IODINE/ COPPER
IODINE:
Iodine is a mineral found in some foods. The body needs iodine to make thyroid hormones. These hormones control the body’s metabolism and many other important functions. The body also needs thyroid hormones for proper bone and brain development during pregnancy and infancy. Getting enough iodine is important for everyone, especially infants and women who are pregnant.
COPPER:
It also helps the body form collagen and absorb iron, and plays a role in energy production.
Most copper in the body is found in the liver, brain, heart, kidneys, and skeletal muscle.
Both too much and too little copper can affect how the brain works. Impairments have been linked to Menkes, Wilson’s, and Alzheimer’s disease
Deficiency is rare, but it can lead to cardiovascular disease and other problems.
13) RESPIRATORY REGULATION
The medulla oblongata is the primary respiratory control center. Its main function is to send signals to the muscles that control respiration to cause breathing to occur. There are two regions in the medulla that control respiration: The ventral respiratory group stimulates expiratory movements.
control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Ventilation facilitates respiration. Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole, or by individual cells in cellular respiration.[1]
The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal of its waste product of carbon dioxide. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.
The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies.[2] Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH in the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center.[3] Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center. There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons.[2] The two groups in the pons are known as the pontine respiratory group.
Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla
Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla
Pneumotaxic center – various nuclei of the pons
Apneustic center – nucleus of the pons
14) REGULATION OF SODIUM AND WATER BALANCE
Sodium and water balance are regulated by the endocrine system. Osmolality of the extracellular fluid is monitored and adjusted by regulating water excretion by the kidney in response to antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Maintenance of vascular volume depends on maintenance of sodium balance. The rennin–angiotensin–aldosterone system and the atrial natriuretic hormone regulate renal mechanisms that govern retention or loss of sodium. ADH also contributes directly to volume regulation, and when demands for constancy of osmolality are in conflict with demands for constancy of volume, the latter prevail. These hormonal mechanisms operate largely by regulating renal function, but they also regulate salt and water intake. Salt and water balance are maintained at constant despite wide variations in intake and loss of both sodium and water. Osmolarity of blood plasma can be increased or decreased by adjusting the proportion of water relative to solute that is excreted in the urine, thus producing reciprocal changes in the osmolality of the urine. The most important stimulus for ADH secretion is an increase in blood osmolality. Aldosterone, an adrenal steroid, plays a pivotal role in maintaining salt and water balance. Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), as its name implies, promotes the excretion of sodium in the urine
15) WHAT ARE THE FUNCTION OF SODIUM
Most of the body's sodium is located in blood and in the fluid around cells. Sodium helps the body keep fluids in a normal balance (see About Body Water). Sodium plays a key role in normal nerve and muscle function.
Human water and salt balance[edit]
Main articles: hyponatremia, hypernatremia, diuretic, and vasopressin
Although the system for maintaining optimal salt and water balance in the body is a complex one,[19] one of the primary ways in which the human body keeps track of loss of body water is that osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense a balance of sodium and water concentration in extracellular fluids. Relative loss of body water will cause sodium concentration to rise higher than normal, a condition known as hypernatremia. This ordinarily results in thirst. Conversely, an excess of body water caused by drinking will result in too little sodium in the blood (hyponatremia), a condition which is again sensed by the hypothalamus, causing a decrease in vasopressin hormone secretion from the posterior pituitary, and a consequent loss of water in the urine, which acts to restore blood sodium concentrations to normal.
Severely dehydrated persons, such as people rescued from ocean or desert survival situations, usually have very high blood sodium concentrations. These must be very carefully and slowly returned to normal, since too-rapid correction of hypernatremia may result in brain damage from cellular swelling, as water moves suddenly into cells with high osmolar content.
In humans, a high-salt intake was demonstrated to attenuate nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to vessel homeostasis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium [20]
Urinary sodium[edit]
Because the hypothalamus/osmoreceptor system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful diuretic drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion, the osmoreceptor system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the hyponatremic (low blood sodium) state.
16) WHAT ARE THE FUNCTION OF POTTASIUM
It helps your nerves to function and muscles to contract. It helps your heartbeat stay regular. It also helps move nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells. A diet rich in potassium helps to offset some of sodium's harmful effects on blood pressure.
Potassium is a mineral that your body needs to work properly. It is a type of electrolyte. It helps your nerves to function and muscles to contract. It helps your heartbeat stay regular. It also helps move nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells. A diet rich in potassium helps to offset some of sodium's harmful effects on blood pressure.
Your kidneys help to keep the right amount of potassium in your body. If you have chronic kidney disease, your kidneys may not remove extra potassium from the blood. Some medicines also can raise your potassium level. You may need a special diet to lower the amount of potassium that you eat.
17) WHAT ARE THE FUNCTION OF CHLORIDE
A chloride test measures the level of chloride in your blood or urine. Chloride is one of the most important electrolytes in the blood. It helps keep the amount of fluid inside and outside of your cells in balance. It also helps maintain proper blood volume, blood pressure, and pH of your body fluids. Tests for sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate are usually done at the same time as a blood test for chloride.
Most of the chloride in your body comes from the salt (sodium chloride) you eat. Chloride is absorbed by your intestines when you digest food. Extra chloride leaves your body in your urine.
Sometimes a test for chloride can be done on a sample of all your urine collected over a 24-hour period (called a 24-hour urine sample) to find out how much chloride is leaving your body in your urine.
Chloride can also be measured in skin sweat to test for cystic fibrosis.
18) NAME THE THYROID HORMONE AND GIVE THEIR METABOLIC FUNCTIONS
The thyroid hormones act on nearly every cell in the body. They act to increase the basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth (synergy with growth hormone) and neural maturation, and increase the body's sensitivity to catecholamines (such as adrenaline) by permissiveness. The thyroid hormones are essential to proper development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. These hormones also regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, affecting how human cells use energetic compounds. They also stimulate vitamin metabolism. Numerous physiological and pathological stimuli influence thyroid hormone synthesis.
Thyroid hormone leads to heat generation in humans. However, the thyronamines function via some unknown mechanism to inhibit neuronal activity; this plays an important role in the hibernation cycles of mammals and the moulting behaviour of birds. One effect of administering the thyronamines is a severe drop in body temperature.
Medical use[edit]
Both T3 and T4 are used to treat thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism). They are both absorbed well by the gut, so can be given orally. Levothyroxine is the pharmaceutical name of the manufactured version of T4, which is metabolised more slowly than T3 and hence usually only needs once-daily administration. Natural desiccated thyroid hormones are derived from pig thyroid glands, and are a "natural" hypothyroid treatment containing 20% T3 and traces of T2, T1 and calcitonin. Also available are synthetic combinations of T3/T4 in different ratios (such as liotrix) and pure-T3 medications (INN: liothyronine). Levothyroxine Sodium is usually the first course of treatment tried. Some patients feel they do better on desiccated thyroid hormones; however, this is based on anecdotal evidence and clinical trials have not shown any benefit over the biosynthetic forms.[6] Thyroid tablets are reported to have different effects, which can be attributed to the difference in torsional angles surrounding the reactive site of the molecule.[7]
Thyronamines have no medical usages yet, though their use has been proposed for controlled induction of hypothermia, which causes the brain to enter a protective cycle, useful in preventing damage during ischemic shock.
Synthetic thyroxine was first successfully produced by Charles Robert Harington and George Barger in 1926.
19) THERMOGENIC EFFECT
Specific dynamic action (SDA), also known as thermic effect of food (TEF) or dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), is the amount of energy expenditure above the basal metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage.[1] Heat production by brown adipose tissue which is activated after consumption of a meal is an additional component of dietary induced thermogenesis.[2] The thermic effect of food is one of the components of metabolism along with resting metabolic rate and the exercise component. A commonly used estimate of the thermic effect of food is about 10% of one's caloric intake, though the effect varies substantially for different food components. For example, dietary fat is very easy to process and has very little thermic effect, while protein is hard to process and has a much larger thermic effect.[3]
20) NITROGEN BALANCE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Nitrogen Balance and Protein Metabolism[edit]
Nitrogen is a fundamental component of amino acids, which are the molecular building blocks of protein. Therefore, measuring nitrogen inputs and losses can be used to study protein metabolism.[2]
Positive nitrogen balance is associated with periods of growth, hypothyroidism, tissue repair, and pregnancy. This means that the intake of nitrogen into the body is greater than the loss of nitrogen from the body, so there is an increase in the total body pool of protein.
Negative nitrogen balance is associated with burns, serious tissue injuries, fevers, hyperthyroidism, wasting diseases, and during periods of fasting. This means that the amount of nitrogen excreted from the body is greater than the amount of nitrogen ingested.[3] A negative nitrogen balance can be used as part of a clinical evaluation of malnutrition.[4]
Nitrogen balance is the traditional method of determining dietary protein requirements.[5] Determining dietary protein requirements using nitrogen balance requires that all nitrogen inputs and losses are carefully collected, to ensure that all nitrogen exchange is accounted for.[6] In order to control nitrogen inputs and losses, nitrogen balance studies usually require participants to eat very specific diets (so total nitrogen intake is known) and stay in the study location for the duration of the study (to collect all nitrogen losses). Because of these conditions, it can be difficult to study the dietary protein requirements of certain populations using the nitrogen balance technique (e.g. children).[7]
21)DIETARY FIBRE AND ITS BENIFICIAL EFFECTS
Dietary fiber and whole grains contain a unique blend of bioactive components including resistant starches, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidants. As a result, research regarding their potential health benefits has received considerable attention in the last several decades. Epidemiological and clinical studies demonstrate that intake of dietary fiber and whole grain is inversely related to obesity, type two diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Defining dietary fiber is a divergent process and is dependent on both nutrition and analytical concepts. The most common and accepted definition is based on nutritional physiology. Generally speaking, dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants, or similar carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Dietary fiber can be separated into many different fractions. Recent research has begun to isolate these components and determine if increasing their levels in a diet is beneficial to human health. These fractions include arabinoxylan, inulin, pectin, bran, cellulose, β-glucan and resistant starch. The study of these components may give us a better understanding of how and why dietary fiber may decrease the risk for certain diseases. The mechanisms behind the reported effects of dietary fiber on metabolic health are not well established. It is speculated to be a result of changes in intestinal viscosity, nutrient absorption, rate of passage, production of short chain fatty acids and production of gut hormones.
22) POLY UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Dietary fiber and whole grains contain a unique blend of bioactive components including resistant starches, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidants. As a result, research regarding their potential health benefits has received considerable attention in the last several decades. Epidemiological and clinical studies demonstrate that intake of dietary fiber and whole grain is inversely related to obesity, type two diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Defining dietary fiber is a divergent process and is dependent on both nutrition and analytical concepts. The most common and accepted definition is based on nutritional physiology. Generally speaking, dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants, or similar carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Dietary fiber can be separated into many different fractions. Recent research has begun to isolate these components and determine if increasing their levels in a diet is beneficial to human health. These fractions include arabinoxylan, inulin, pectin, bran, cellulose, β-glucan and resistant starch. The study of these components may give us a better understanding of how and why dietary fiber may decrease the risk for certain diseases. The mechanisms behind the reported effects of dietary fiber on metabolic health are not well established. It is speculated to be a result of changes in intestinal viscosity, nutrient absorption, rate of passage, production of short chain fatty acids and production of gut hormones.
23) BALANCED DIET
A healthy diet is one that helps maintain or improve overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients, micronutrients, and adequate calories.[1][2]
A healthy diet may contain fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and includes little to no processed food and sweetened beverages. The requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods, although a non-animal source of vitamin B12 is needed for those following a vegan diet.[3] Various nutrition guides are published by medical and governmental institutions to educate individuals on what they should be eating to be healthy. Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health.[4][5]
24) GLOMERULAR FUNCTION TESTS
A healthy diet is one that helps maintain or improve overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients, micronutrients, and adequate calories.[1][2]
A healthy diet may contain fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and includes little to no processed food and sweetened beverages. The requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods, although a non-animal source of vitamin B12 is needed for those following a vegan diet.[3] Various nutrition guides are published by medical and governmental institutions to educate individuals on what they should be eating to be healthy. Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health.[4][5]
25 PROTEINURIA
An excess of protein in the urine.
COMMON CAUSES
Protein in urine can have causes that aren't due to underlying disease. Examples include individual variation, transient proteinuria (a common benign condition) or medication side effects.
Proteinuria is the presence of excess proteins in the urine. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein; an excess is suggestive of illness. Excess protein in the urine often causes the urine to become foamy (although this symptom may also be caused by other conditions). Severe proteinurina can cause nephrotic syndrome in which there is worsening swelling of the body.
Due to disease in the glomerulus
Because of increased quantity of proteins in serum (overflow proteinuria)
Due to low reabsorption at proximal tubule (Fanconi syndrome)
Proteinuria can also be caused by certain biological agents, such as bevacizumab (Avastin) used in cancer treatment. Excessive fluid intake (drinking in excess of 4 litres of water per day) is another cause.[4][5]
Proteinuria may be a sign of renal (kidney) damage. Since serum proteins are readily reabsorbed from urine, the presence of excess protein indicates either an insufficiency of absorption or impaired filtration. People with diabetes may have damaged nephrons and develop proteinuria. The most common cause of proteinuria is diabetes, and in any person with proteinuria and diabetes, the cause of the underlying proteinuria should be separated into two categories: diabetic proteinuria versus the field.
With severe proteinuria, general hypoproteinemia can develop which results in diminished oncotic pressure. Symptoms of diminished oncotic pressure may include ascites, edema and hydrothorax.
26) TYPES AND CAUSES OF JAUNDICE
Yellow skin caused by the build-up of bilirubin in the blood.
Jaundice may occur if the liver can't efficiently process red blood cells as they break down. It's normal in healthy newborns and usually clears on its own. At other ages, it may signal infection or liver disease.
Symptoms include yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes.
Some newborns may require light therapy for a day or so. In other cases, treatment involves addressing the underlying cause.
COMMON CAUSES
Jaundice can have causes that aren't due to underlying disease. Examples include Gilbert's syndrome (a benign condition) or medication side effects.
For informational purposes only. Consult your local medical authority for advice.
Notice any yellow tint to the skin or eyes of an infant, child or adult
Have dark coloured urine and abdominal swelling or expansion
There are three main types of jaundice: pre-hepatic, hepatocellular, and post-hepatic. In pre-hepatic jaundice, there is excessive red cell breakdown which overwhelms the liver's ability to conjugate bilirubin
Jaundice is a yellowing of the skin and the whites of eyes that happens when the body does not process bilirubin properly. This may be due to a problem in the liver.
It is also known as icterus.
Bilirubin is a yellow-colored waste material that remains in the bloodstream after iron is removed from the blood.
The liver filters waste out from the blood. When bilirubin reaches the liver, other chemicals attach to it. A substance called conjugated bilirubin results.
The liver produces bile, a digestive juice. Conjugated bilirubin enters the bile, then it leaves the body. It is this type of bilirubin that gives feces its brown color.
If there is too much bilirubin, it can leak into the surrounding tissues. This is known as hyperbilirubinemia, and it causes the yellow color in the skin and eyes.
27 LIPID PROFILE
Lipid profile or lipid panel is a panel of blood tests that serves as an initial screening tool for abnormalities in lipids, such as cholesterol and triglycerides.[not verified in body] The results of this test can identify certain genetic diseases and can determine approximate risks for cardiovascular disease, certain forms of pancreatitis, and other diseases.
Lipid panels are ordered as part of a physical exam, along with other panels such as the complete blood count (CBC) and basic metabolic panel (BMP).[not verified in body]
28) LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoprotein which transport all fat molecules around the body in the extracellular water.[1] These groups, from least dense to most dense, are chylomicrons (aka ULDL by the overall density naming convention), very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL delivers fat molecules to cells. LDL can contribute to atherosclerosis if it is oxidized within the walls of arteries.
29) HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins.[1] Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins which transport all fat molecules (lipids) around the body within the water outside cells. They are typically composed of 80–100 proteins per particle (organized by one, two or three ApoA; more as the particles enlarge picking up and carrying more fat molecules) and transporting up to hundreds of fat molecules per particle.
30) GLYCOSURIA
Glycosuria is the excretion of glucose into the urine. Ordinarily, urine contains no glucose because the kidneys are able to reabsorb all of the filtered glucose from the tubular fluid back into the bloodstream. Glycosuria is nearly always caused by elevated blood glucose levels, most commonly due to untreated diabetes mellitus. Rarely, glycosuria is due to an intrinsic problem with glucose reabsorption within the kidneys (such as Fanconi syndrome), producing a condition termed renal glycosuria.[1] Glycosuria leads to excessive water loss into the urine with resultant dehydration, a process called osmotic diuresis.
Alimentary glycosuria is a temporary condition, when a high amount of carbohydrate is taken, it is rapidly absorbed in some cases where a part of the stomach is surgically removed, the excessive glucose appears in urine producing glycosuria.
SHORT ANSWERS
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1)WHAT IS BENEDICT REACTION
Benedict's reagent (often called Benedict's qualitative solution or Benedict's solution) is a chemical reagent and complex mixture of sodium carbonate, sodium citrate and copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.[1] It is often used in place of Fehling's solution to detect the presence of reducing sugars. The presence of other reducing substances also gives a positive result.[2] Such tests that use this reagent are called the Benedict's tests. A positive test with Benedict's reagent is shown by a color change from clear blue to brick-red with a precipitate.
2) WHAT IS RENATURATION
Definition noun, plural: renaturations (molecular biology) The conversion of denatured protein or nucleic acid to its native configuration Supplement Renaturation in molecular biology refers to the reconstruction of a protein or nucleic acid (such as DNA) to their original form especially after denaturation.
3) NAME THE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES OF PANCREAS
The proteolytic class of pancreatic enzymes secreted as inactive precursors into the duodenum consists of trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypolypeptides wherein the trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase are endopeptidases of the serine protease family of enzymes.
4) WHAT IS COAGULATION
Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets, as well as deposition and maturation of fibrin.
5) NAME THE HORMONE WHICH STIMULATE PANCREATIC SECRECTION
Gastrin: This hormone, which is very similar to cholecystokinin, is secreted in large amounts by the stomach in response to gastric distention and irritation. In addition to stimulating acid secretion by the parietal cell, gastrin stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to secrete digestive enzymes.
6) NAME THE FAT OF OUR BODY WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENT
The six top types of body fat include essential fat, brown fat, white fat, beige fat, subcutaneous fat, and visceral fat. While there may be varying ways to approach the categorization of body fat, it's easiest to consider what's predominantly good and bad for your overall health.
The body is composed of water, protein, minerals, and fat. A two-component model of body composition divides the body into a fat component and fat-free component. Body fat is the most variable constituent of the body. The total amount of body fat consists of essential fat and storage fat.
7) WHAT IS THE STORAGE FORM OF LIPID IN ADIPOSE TISSUE
triglycerides
Adipose tissue is specialized connective tissue that functions as the major storage site for fat in the form of triglycerides. Adipose tissue is found in mammals in two different forms: white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue.
8) NAME THE LIPOPROTEIENS
There are four major classes of circulating lipoproteins, each with its own characteristic protein and lipid composition. They are chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).
9) WHAT IS THE NORMAL SERUM CHOLESTEROL LEVEL? NAME SOME DISORDERS IN WHICH IT IS INCREASED
Two cholesterol disorders are hyperlipidemia, and hypolipidemia. Hyperlipidemia means you have an unusually high level of fat (lipids) in your blood. This puts you at risk for many health problems, including heart attack and stroke. It is sometimes called high blood cholesterol.
10) WHAT IS BITOT`S SPOT DUE TO
Bitot's spots are the buildup of keratin located superficially in the conjunctiva of human's eyes. They can be oval, triangular or irregular in shape. The spots are a sign of vitamin A deficiency and associated with drying of the cornea.
11) WHAT IS TETANY DUE TO
Tetany can be the result of an electrolyte imbalance. Most often, it's a dramatically low calcium level, also known as hypocalcemia. Tetany can also be caused by magnesium deficiency or too little potassium. Having too much acid (acidosis) or too much alkali (alkalosis) in the body can also result in tetany.
12)WHAT IS FLUOROSIS
Fluorosis may refer to:
Dental fluorosis, a disturbance of dental enamel caused by excessive exposure to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth development.
Skeletal fluorosis, a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones
Fluoride toxicity, elevated levels of the fluoride ion in the body
13) NAME THE TRANSPORT AND STORAGE FORMS OF IRONS
Transferrin is the major iron transport protein (transports iron through blood). Fe3+ is the form of iron that binds to transferrin, so the Fe2+ transported through ferroportin must be oxidized to Fe3+. There are 2 copper-containing proteins that catalyze this oxidation of Fe2+: hephaestin and ceruloplasmin.
14) WHAT IS THE SAFE LIMIT OF FLUORINE IN WATER
The optimal fluoride level in drinking water to prevent tooth decay should be 0.7 milligrams of fluoride per liter of water, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) announced Monday.
15) WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF COPPER
Copper is incorporated into a variety of proteins and metalloenzymes which perform essential metabolic functions; the micronutrient is necessary for the proper growth, development, and maintenance of bone, connective tissue, brain, heart, and many other body organs.
16) WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF ZINC
Function. Zinc is found in cells throughout the body. It is needed for the body's defensive (immune) system to properly work. It plays a role in cell division, cell growth, wound healing, and the breakdown of carbohydrates
17) WHAT IS WILSON DISEASE
In Wilson's disease, copper isn't eliminated properly and instead accumulates, possibly to a life-threatening level. Symptoms typically begin between the ages of 12 and 23.
Symptoms include swelling, fatigue, abdominal pain and uncontrolled or poorly coordinated movements.
Treatment often includes medication that can prompt the organs to release copper into the bloodstream. Once it's in the bloodstream, it can then be eliminated from the body through the kidneys
18) NAME THE BLOOD BUFFERS WHICH IS PRE DOMINANT BUFFER SYSTEM
The buffer systems functioning in blood plasma include plasma proteins, phosphate, and bicarbonate and carbonic acid buffers. The kidneys help control acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions and generating bicarbonate that helps maintain blood plasma pH within a normal range.
19) WHAT IS NORMAL PCO2/PO2BICARBONATE LEVEL IN BLOOD
ABG (Arterial Blood Gas)
pH7.35-7.45
pCO235-45 torr
pO2>79 torr
CO223-30 mmol/L
Base Excess/Deficit3 mEq/L
20) NAME 2 PEPTIDE HORMONES
Amylin, or islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), is a 37-residue peptide hormone.[4] It is cosecreted with insulin from the pancreatic β-cells in the ratio of approximately 100:1 (insulin:amylin). Amylin plays a role in glycemic regulation by slowing gastric emptying and promoting satiety, thereby preventing post-prandial spikes in blood glucose levels.
21)) NAME ANY 2 STEROID HORMONES
They are secreted by the adrenal cortex, testes and ovaries, and by the placenta during pregnancy. On the basis of their receptors, steroid hormones have been classified into five groups: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, oestrogens and progestogens
22) WHAR ARE GROUP 1 HORMONES GIVE EXAMPLES
examples of group 1 hormones are estrogens progestins androgens glucocorticoids mineralocorticoids calcitriol thyroid hormones later in this video we would also see the exact function of these hormones.
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23) WHAT ARE GROUP 2 HORMONES GIVE EXAMPLES
refer book
24) NAME THE HYPOGLYCEMIC AND HYPERGLYCEMIC HORMONES
The hyperglycemic hormone or glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans, that stimulates the release of glucose into the blood. Glucagon works antagonist of insulin. so glucagon is considered as hyperglycemic hormone. Hypoglycemia or low blood sugar is a condition that occurs when level of blood sugar decreases to below normal level. Insulin is the major actor in causing hypoglycemia. There are many other hormones that modulate the release of insulin. For example, the incretin effect is the increase in insulin secretion caused by oral administration of glucose through the release of GLP-1 (glucagon like peptide) and GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide).
25) WHAT ARE HORMONE RECEPTORS
A hormone receptor is a receptor molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Hormone receptors are a wide family of proteins made up of receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, retinoids and Vitamin D, and a variety of other receptors for various ligands, such as fatty acids and prostaglandins.
26) WHAT IS ALDOSTERONE
Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid hormone, is a steroid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland. It is essential for sodium conservation in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands and colon
27) WHAT IS CALORIE VALUE OF FOOD
Energy has traditionally been expressed as calories or kilocalories. More recently, the units of energy have been changed to kilojoules. There are 4.2 kilojoules in 1 kilocalorie. For convenience, both units are shown on the chart. Someone having 2000 kilocalories each day would be having 8400 kilojoules, also known as 8.4 megajoules. The energy value of a food indicates its value to the body as a fuel. This may be less than the heat value obtained experimentally by 'burning' the food outside the body in what is called a 'bomb calorimeter'. After a food is ingested, some of its energy may be 'lost' during digestion and metabolism. Although the energy value of some foods has been found by combustion in a bomb calorimeter, more usually the amounts of the macronutrients - fat, protein, carbohydrate and alcohol (ethanol) - in a food are taken into account when assessing the total energy value of the food.
28) WHAT ARE DIETARY FIBERS?GIVE EXAMPLESWHAT ARE THEIR BIOCHEMICALEFFECT
Studies also have shown that high-fiber foods may have other heart-health benefits, such as reducing blood pressure and inflammation.
Helps control blood sugar levels. In people with diabetes, fiber — particularly soluble fiber — can slow the absorption of sugar and help improve blood sugar levels.
29) WHAT IS NITROGEN BALANCE ? WHAT IS POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NITROGEN BALANCE
Nitrogen balance is a measure of nitrogen input minus nitrogen output. Nitrogen Balance = Nitrogen intake - Nitrogen loss Sources of nitrogen intake include meat, dairy, eggs, nuts and legumes, and grains and cereals. Examples of nitrogen losses include urine, feces, sweat, hair, and skin
Positive nitrogen balance is associated with periods of growth, hypothyroidism, tissue repair, and pregnancy. ... This means that the amount of nitrogen excreted from the body is greater than the amount of nitrogen ingested. A negative nitrogen balance can be used as part of a clinical evaluation of malnutrition.
30) GIVE THE MARKERS OF RENAL DISEASE AND THEIR NORMAL LEVELS IN BLOOD
The markers of renal function test assess the normal functioning of kidneys. These markers may be radioactive and non radioactive. They indicate the glomerular filtration rate, concentrating and diluting capacity of kidneys (tubular function). If there is an increase or decrease in the valves of these markers it indicates dysfunction of kidney.
31) WHAT ARE BILE SALTS
Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals and other vertebrates. Diverse bile acids are synthesized in the liver. Bile acids are conjugated with taurine or glycine residues to give anions called bile salts. Primary bile acids are those synthesized by the liver.
32) WHAT IS BILE PIGMENTS
Bilins, bilanes or bile pigments are biological pigments formed in many organisms as a metabolic product of certain porphyrins. Bilin was named as a bile pigment of mammals, but can also be found in lower vertebrates, invertebrates, as well as red algae, green plants and cyanobacteria.
32) WHAT IS THE NORMAL LEVEL OF ALBUMIN IN BLOOD
A normal albumin range is 3.4 to 5.4 g/dL. If you have a lower albumin level, you may have malnutrition. It can also mean that you have liver disease or an inflammatory disease. Higher albumin levels may be caused by acute infections, burns, and stress from surgery or a heart attack.