GENRAL MEDICINE & OG
DIAGRAMS ARE NECESSARY
SHORT NOTES
(5 MARKS)
1) HEPATITIS-B
A serious liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus that's easily preventable by a vaccine.
This disease is most commonly spread by exposure to infected bodily fluids.
Symptoms are variable and include yellowing of the eyes, abdominal pain and dark urine. Some people, particularly children, don't experience any symptoms. In chronic cases, liver failure, cancer or scarring can occur.
The condition often clears up on its own. Chronic cases require medication and possibly a liver transplant.
Symptoms are variable and include yellowing of the eyes, abdominal pain and dark urine. Some people, particularly children, don't experience any symptoms. In chronic cases, liver failure, cancer or scarring can occur.
Can have no symptoms, but people may experience:
Whole body: fatigue or malaise
Skin: web of swollen blood vessels in the skin or yellow skin and eyes
Treatment depends on severity
The condition often clears up on its own. Chronic cases require medication and possibly a liver transplant.
2) AIDS
HIV causes AIDS and interferes with the body's ability to fight infections.
The virus can be transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen or vaginal fluids.
Within a few weeks of HIV infection, flu-like symptoms such as fever, sore throat and fatigue can occur. Then the disease is usually asymptomatic until it progresses to AIDS. AIDS symptoms include weight loss, fever or night sweats, fatigue and recurrent infections.
No cure exists for AIDS, but strict adherence to antiretroviral regimens (ARVs) can dramatically slow the disease's progress as well as prevent secondary infections and complications.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Within a few weeks of HIV infection, flu-like symptoms such as fever, sore throat and fatigue can occur. Then the disease is usually asymptomatic until it progresses to AIDS. AIDS symptoms include weight loss, fever or night sweats, fatigue and recurrent infections.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the abdomen
Pain circumstances: can occur while swallowing
Cough: can be dry
Whole body: fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, malaise, night sweats, or sweating
Gastrointestinal: nausea, persistent diarrhoea, vomiting, or watery diarrhoea
Throat: difficulty swallowing or soreness
Groin: sores or swelling
Mouth: ulcers or white tongue
Also common: opportunistic infection, headache, oral thrush, pneumonia, red blotches, severe unintentional weight loss, skin rash, or swollen lymph nodes
Treatment consists of HIV antivirals
No cure exists for AIDS, but strict adherence to antiretroviral regimens (ARVs) can dramatically slow the disease's progress as well as prevent secondary infections and complications.
3) IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA
Too few healthy red blood cells due to too little iron in the body.
Without enough iron, red blood cells can't carry enough oxygen to body tissues.
Iron deficiency often causes low blood cell levels (anaemia) and can delay the development of unborn babies.
Treatment includes iron supplements and a focus on any underlying causes.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Iron deficiency often causes low blood cell levels (anaemia) and can delay the development of unborn babies.
People may experience:
Whole body: dizziness, fatigue, lethargy, light-headedness, or malaise
Also common: brittle nails, hair loss, headache, irritability, restless legs syndrome, or shortness of breath
Treatment consists of supplements
Treatment includes iron supplements and a focus on any underlying causes.
4) CAUSES OF ASTHMA
Airborne allergens, such as pollen, dust mites, mold spores, pet dander or particles of cockroach waste.
Respiratory infections, such as the common cold.
Physical activity.
Cold air.
Air pollutants and irritants, such as smoke.
Signs that your asthma is probably worsening include:
Asthma signs and symptoms that are more frequent and bothersome
Increasing difficulty breathing, as measured with a device used to check how well your lungs are working (peak flow meter)
The need to use a quick-relief inhaler more often
For some people, asthma signs and symptoms flare up in certain situations:
Exercise-induced asthma, which may be worse when the air is cold and dry
Occupational asthma, triggered by workplace irritants such as chemical fumes, gases or dust
Allergy-induced asthma, triggered by airborne substances, such as pollen, mold spores, cockroach waste, or particles of skin and dried saliva shed by pets (pet dander)
5) BRONCHIECTASIS
A condition in which the lungs' airways become damaged, making it hard to clear mucus.
Bronchiectasis may result from an infection or medical condition, such as pneumonia or cystic fibrosis. Mucus builds up and breeds bacteria, causing frequent infections.
Symptoms include a daily cough that occurs over months or years and daily production of large amounts of phlegm.
Treatment may include physiotherapy and medication, such as antibiotics and drugs to help loosen mucus.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms include a daily cough that occurs over months or years and daily production of large amounts of phlegm.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the chest
Cough: can be chronic, with blood, or with phlegm
Respiratory: shortness of breath, sinusitis, or wheezing
Whole body: fatigue or inability to exercise
Also common: phlegm, recurrent infection, deformity of nails, or weight loss
Treatment consists of self care and preventative measures
Treatment may include physiotherapy and medication, such as antibiotics and drugs to help loosen mucus.
6) MANAGEMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS
Approach Considerations
Isolate patients with possible tuberculosis (TB) infection in a private room with negative pressure (air exhausted to outside or through a high-efficiency particulate air filter). Medical staff must wear high-efficiency disposable masks sufficient to filter the tubercle bacillus. Continue isolation until sputum smears are negative for 3 consecutive determinations (usually after approximately 2-4 wk of treatment). Unfortunately, these measures are neither possible nor practical in countries where TB is a public health problem.
Drug therapy
For initial empiric treatment of TB, start patients on a 4-drug regimen: isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and either ethambutol or streptomycin. Once the TB isolate is known to be fully susceptible, ethambutol (or streptomycin, if it is used as a fourth drug) can be discontinued
Tuberculosis management refers to the medical treatment of the infectious disease tuberculosis (TB).
The standard "short" course treatment for TB is isoniazid (along with pyridoxal phosphate to obviate peripheral neuropathy caused by isoniazid), rifampicin (also known as rifampin in the United States), pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for two months, then isoniazid and rifampicin alone for a further four months. The patient is considered to be free of living bacteria after six months. For latent tuberculosis, the standard treatment is six to nine months of daily isoniazid alone or three months of weekly (12 doses total) of isoniazid/rifapentine combination.[1][2][3] If the organism is known to be fully sensitive, then treatment is with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide for two months, followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for four months. Ethambutol need not be used.
7) PIGEON CHEST
Pectus carinatum, also called pigeon chest, is a malformation of the chest characterized by a protrusion of the sternum and ribs. It is distinct from the related malformation pectus excavatum.
Signs and symptoms:
People with pectus carinatum usually develop normal hearts and lungs, but the malformation may prevent these from functioning optimally. In moderate to severe cases of pectus carinatum, the chest wall is rigidly held in an outward position. Thus, respirations are inefficient and the individual needs to use the accessory muscles for respiration, rather than normal chest muscles, during strenuous exercise. This negatively affects gas exchange and causes a decrease in stamina. Children with pectus malformations often tire sooner than their peers, due to shortness of breath and fatigue. Commonly concurrent is mild to moderate asthma.
Treatment
External bracing technique
The use of orthotic bracing, pioneered by Sydney Haje as of 1977, is finding increasing acceptance as an alternative to surgery in select cases of pectus carinatum.[4] In children, teenagers, and young adults who have pectus carinatum and are motivated to avoid surgery, the use of a customized chest-wall brace that applies direct pressure on the protruding area of the chest produces excellent outcomes. Willingness to wear the brace as required is essential for the success of this treatment approach. The brace works in much the same way as orthodontics (braces that correct the alignment of teeth). The brace consists of front and back compression plates that are anchored to aluminum bars. These bars are bound together by a tightening mechanism which varies from brace to brace. This device is easily hidden under clothing and must be worn from 14 to 24 hours a day. The wearing time varies with each brace manufacturer and the managing physicians protocol, which could be based on the severity of the carinatum malformation (mild moderate severe) and if it is symmetric or asymmetric.
8) BARREL CHEST
Barrel chest generally refers to a broad, deep chest found on a man. A man described as barrel chested will usually have a naturally large ribcage, very round (i.e., vertically cylindrical) torso, large lung capacity, and can potentially have great upper body strength. It can sometimes be a sign of acromegaly (a syndrome resulting from excess levels of human growth hormone (HGH) in the body). It is most commonly related to osteoarthritis as individuals age. Arthritis can stiffen the chest causing the ribs to become fixed in their most expanded position, giving the appearance of a barrel chest.[1]
Increased compliance of the lungs leads to the accumulation of air pockets inside the thoracic cavity.
Increased compliance of the lungs increases the intrathoracic pressure. This increase in pressure allows the chest wall to naturally expand outward.[2]
Barrel chest that occurs due to OA is harder to control, but people use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce the size of swollen tissue. People with CF will use physical therapy techniques on the chest and back that help to loosen mucus on the lungs alongside many of the above medications.
9) FUNNEL CHEST
A condition in which the breastbone sinks into the chest.
Pectus excavatum is often noticeable shortly after birth and typically worsens during the adolescent growth spurt. It's more common in boys. It may be associated with genetic or connective tissue diseases.
In severe cases, pectus excavatum can look as if the centre of the chest has been scooped out, leaving a deep dent.
Pectus excavatum doesn't usually require treatment, although physiotherapy may help if symptoms develop. Rarely, surgery is required to correct the condition.
Usually self-diagnosable
In severe cases, pectus excavatum can look as if the centre of the chest has been scooped out, leaving a deep dent.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the chest
Whole body: fatigue or inability to exercise
Also common: physical deformity, coughing, palpitations, or shortness of breath
Treatment depends on severity
Pectus excavatum doesn't usually require treatment, although physiotherapy may help if symptoms develop. Rarely, surgery is required to correct the condition.
10) ANGINA PECTORIS
A type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart.
Angina is a symptom of coronary artery disease.
Angina feels like squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness or pain in the chest. It can be sudden or recur over time.
Depending on severity, it can be treated by lifestyle changes, medication, angioplasty or surgery.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Angina feels like squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness or pain in the chest. It can be sudden or recur over time.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the chest, jaw, or neck
Pain types: can be like a clenched fist in the chest or sudden in the chest
Whole body: dizziness, fatigue, inability to exercise, light-headedness, or sweating
Gastrointestinal: heartburn, indigestion, or nausea
Respiratory: rapid breathing or shortness of breath
Also common: anxiety, chest pressure, or fast heart rate
Treatment consists of beta blockers and anti-anginal medications
Depending on severity, it can be treated by lifestyle changes, medication, angioplasty or surgery.
11) ATRIAL SEPTAL DEFECT
A birth defect that causes a hole in the wall between the heart's upper chambers (atria).
Atrial septal defects (ASDs) that aren't diagnosed until adulthood can damage the heart and lungs, shortening life.
Many babies born with ASDs don't have symptoms. By the age of 30, adults may notice symptoms such as shortness of breath, heart palpitations, fatigue, swelling in the legs, feet or abdomen and heart murmurs.
Small ASDs may close on their own. Medium-to-large-sized ASDs may need closure by device or surgical correction.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Many babies born with ASDs don't have symptoms. By the age of 30, adults may notice symptoms such as shortness of breath, heart palpitations, fatigue, swelling in the legs, feet or abdomen and heart murmurs.
Treatment consists of supportive care
Small ASDs may close on their own. Medium-to-large-sized ASDs may need closure by device or surgical correction.
12) VENTRICULAR SEPTAL DEFECT
A heart defect due to an abnormal connection between the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles).
A ventricular septal defect is a common heart defect most often present at birth, but it can occur in adults after surgery or a heart attack. It involves a hole in the wall between the heart's lower chambers.
Symptoms may include a bluish tint to the skin, lips and fingernails, along with poor feeding, poor weight gain and fast breathing.
Most holes close on their own, although many may need surgery or a catheter-based procedure to close the hole. Symptoms can be treated with blood pressure medicines or diuretics.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms may include a bluish tint to the skin, lips and fingernails, along with poor feeding, poor weight gain and fast breathing.
Can have no symptoms, but people may experience:
Whole body: fatigue, inability to exercise, or sweating
Heart: murmur or enlarged heart
Respiratory: fast breathing or shortness of breath
Also common: baby feeding difficulties, blue skin from poor circulation, failure to thrive, or swelling
Treatment depends on severity
Most holes close on their own, although many may need surgery or a catheter-based procedure to close the hole. Symptoms can be treated with blood pressure medicines or diuretics.
13) FALLOTS TETROLOGY
A rare condition caused by a combination of four heart defects that are present at birth.
Tetralogy of Fallot defects cause oxygen-poor blood to flow out of the heart and into the rest of the body. Risk factors include a viral illness such as rubella (German measles) during pregnancy, maternal alcoholism or a family history of the condition.
Symptoms include blue-tinged skin and shortness of breath.
Surgery is typically performed in the first year of life, followed by ongoing care.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms include blue-tinged skin and shortness of breath.
People may experience:
Whole body: fainting or inability to exercise
Heart: murmur or fast heart rate
Also common: baby feeding difficulties, shortness of breath, sudden deep blue discolouration, blue skin from poor circulation, deformity of nails, or failure to thrive
Treatment consists of vasodilators and surgery
Surgery is typically performed in the first year of life, followed by ongoing care.
14) PATENT DUCTUS ATRIOSUS
A heart defect caused by problems in the heart's development.
Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is an opening between two blood vessels leading from the heart.
A small PDA may cause no symptoms, but a large one may cause poor eating, failure to thrive or breathlessness.
Treatments include monitoring, medication (including NSAIDs), device closure and surgery.
Requires a medical diagnosis
A small PDA may cause no symptoms, but a large one may cause poor eating, failure to thrive or breathlessness.
Can have no symptoms, but people may experience:
Respiratory: fast breathing, respiratory distress, or shortness of breath
Heart: murmur or fast heart rate
Also common: easy tiring, failure to thrive, lack of interest in feeding in infants, or sweating with eating or crying
Treatment consists of anti-inflammatories
Treatments include monitoring, medication (including NSAIDs), device closure and surgery.
15) COARCTATION OF AORTA
A narrowing of the large blood vessel (aorta) that leads from the heart.
Coarctation of the aorta is usually present at birth (congenital) and may occur with other heart defects.
Many people have no symptoms and the condition often isn't detected until adulthood. The most common symptom in adults is high blood pressure. Rarely, severe cases can cause heart failure in babies.
Treatment involves surgery or a catheter-based procedure to fix the narrowing.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Many people have no symptoms and the condition often isn't detected until adulthood. The most common symptom in adults is high blood pressure. Rarely, severe cases can cause heart failure in babies.
People may experience:
Whole body: high blood pressure or low blood pressure
Heart: enlarged heart or murmur
Also common: blue skin from poor circulation, diminished pulses, failure to thrive, or shortness of breath
Treatment consists of procedures
Treatment involves surgery or a catheter-based procedure to fix the narrowing.
16) AORTIC STENOSIS
Narrowing of the valve in the large blood vessel branching off the heart (aorta).
This narrowing keeps the valve from opening fully, reducing blood flow to the body and making the heart work harder.
The heart may weaken, causing chest pain, fatigue and shortness of breath.
Mild cases may not need treatment. In severe cases, surgery can repair or replace the valve.
Requires a medical diagnosis
The heart may weaken, causing chest pain, fatigue and shortness of breath.
Can have no symptoms, but people may experience:
Pain areas: in the chest
Whole body: fainting, fatigue, inability to exercise, or light-headedness
Heart: murmur or enlarged heart
Also common: chest pressure or shortness of breath
Treatment depends on severity
Mild cases may not need treatment. In severe cases, surgery can repair or replace the valve.
17) LOBAR AND BRONCHO PNEMONIA
Lobar pneumonia is a form of pneumonia characterized by inflammatory exudate within the intra-alveolar space resulting in consolidation that affects a large and continuous area of the lobe of a lung.[1][2]
It is one of three anatomic classifications of pneumonia (the other being bronchopneumonia and atypical pneumonia). In children round pneumonia develops instead because the pores of Kohn which allow the lobar spread of infection are underdeveloped
The most common organisms which cause lobar pneumonia are Streptococcus pneumoniae, also called pneumococcus, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the tubercle bacillus, may also cause lobar pneumonia if pulmonary tuberculosis is not treated promptly. Other organisms that cause lobar pneumonia are Legionella pneumophila and Klebsiella pneumoniae.[2]
Like other types of pneumonia, lobar pneumonia can present as community acquired, in immune suppressed patients or as nosocomial infection. However, most causative organisms are of the community acquired type. Pathological specimens to be obtained for investigations include:
Sputum for culture, AAFBS and gram stain
Blood for full hemogram/complete blood count, ESR and other acute phase reactants
Procalcitonin test, more specific
On a posterioanterior and lateral chest radiograph, an entire lobe will be radiopaque, which is indicative of lobar pneumonia.[5]
BRONCHO PNEMONIA:
Bronchopneumonia is a subtype of pneumonia. It is the acute inflammation of the bronchi, accompanied by inflamed patches in the nearby lobules of the lungs.[1]
It is often contrasted with lobar pneumonia but in clinical practice the types are difficult to apply, as the patterns usually overlap.[2] Bronchopneumonia (lobular) often leads to lobar pneumonia as the infection progresses. The same organism may cause one type of pneumonia in one patient, and another in a different patient.
Treatment[edit]
Further information: Pneumonia
Compared to pneumonia in general, the association between the bronchopneumonia pattern and hospital-acquired pneumonia warrants greater consideration of multiple drug resistance in the choice of antibiotics.
18) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHRONIC BRONCHITIS AND EMPHYSEMA
Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs that causes coughing.[1] Symptoms include coughing up sputum, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest pain.[1] Bronchitis can be acute or chronic.[1]
Acute bronchitis usually has a cough that lasts around three weeks,[4] and is also known as a chest cold.[5] In more than 90% of cases the cause is a viral infection.[4] These viruses may be spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact.[6] A small number of cases are caused by a bacterial infection such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Bordetella pertussis.[4] Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollution.[6] Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to help with the fever.[7][8]
Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough – one that produces sputum – that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years.[9][10] Many people with chronic bronchitis have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).[11] Tobacco smoking is the most common cause, with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role.[12] Treatments include quitting smoking, vaccinations, rehabilitation, and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids.[13] Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy.[13]
EMPHYSEMA:
Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones
19) MANAGEMENT OF CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
Bronchodilator MedicationsInhaled as aerosol sprays or taken orally, bronchodilator medications may help to relieve symptoms of chronic bronchitis by relaxing and opening the air passages in the lungs.
SteroidsInhaled as an aerosol spray, steroids can help relieve symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Over time, however, inhaled steroids can cause side effects, such as weakened bones, high blood pressure, diabetes and cataracts. It is important to discuss these side effects with your doctor before using steroids.
AntibioticsAntibiotics may be used to help fight respiratory infections common in people with chronic bronchitis.
20) COMPLICATION OF EMPHYSEMA
Complications of emphysema can include: pneumonia – this is an infection of the alveoli and bronchioles. People with emphysema are more prone to pneumonia. collapsed lung – some lungs develop large air pockets (bullae), which may burst, resulting in lung deflation (also called pneumothorax)Nov 30, 2014
Parent disease: Respiratory disease
Causes: Tobacco smoking
21) MANAGEMENT OF BRONCHIECTASIS
Management of the paediatric patient with bronchiectasis is ideally supervised by a multidisciplinary team lead by a paediatric respiratory physician with experience in suppurative lung disease. In most circumstances management can mirror the established cystic fibrosis (CF) care model however specific additional medical and allied health staff may be required to provide overall management of the patient. Ear nose and throat and audiology input into patients with Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia is essential as is the involvement of gastroenterologists and nutritionists in conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease and CF and neurologists and speech therapists in conditions involved with impaired oropharyngeal co-ordination.
General management principles include reduction of mucus production from the damaged area of the lung and optimisation of airway clearance.
Bronchiectatic areas of the lung will usually produce more mucus than unaffected areas of the lung. This excessive production is increased by other insults including smoke exposure and infection.
The principles of treating bronchiectasis in children are similar to that in adults which include:
control of symptoms
improving quality of life
prevention and prompt treatment of exacerbations
preservation of lung function
prevention of secondary complications, such as haemoptysis
22) LUNG ABSESS
Lung abscess is a type of liquefactive necrosis of the lung tissue and formation of cavities (more than 2 cm)[1] containing necrotic debris or fluid caused by microbial infection.
This pus-filled cavity is often caused by aspiration, which may occur during anesthesia, sedation, or unconsciousness from injury. Alcoholism is the most common condition predisposing to lung abscesses.
Lung abscess is considered primary (60%[2]) when it results from existing lung parenchymal process and is termed secondary when it complicates another process e.g. vascular emboli or follows rupture of extrapulmonary abscess into lung.
Signs and symptoms[edit]
Onset of symptoms is often gradual, but in necrotizing staphylococcal or gram-negative bacillary pneumonias patients can be acutely ill. Cough, fever with shivering, and night sweats are often present. Cough can be productive of foul smelling purulent mucus (≈70%) or less frequently with blood in one third of cases).[3] Affected individuals may also complain of chest pain, shortness of breath, lethargy and other features of chronic illness.
Causes[edit]
Conditions contributing to lung abscess
Aspiration of oropharyngeal or gastric secretion
Septic emboli
Necrotizing tumors: 8% to 18% are due to neoplasms across all age groups, higher in older people; primary squamous carcinoma of the lung is the most common.
Organisms
In the post-antibiotic era pattern of frequency is changing. In older studies anaerobes were found in up to 90% cases but they are much less frequent now.[5]
23) RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISEASE
Restrictive lung diseases are a category of extrapulmonary, pleural, or parenchymal respiratory diseases that restrict lung expansion,[2] resulting in a decreased lung volume, an increased work of breathing, and inadequate ventilation and/or oxygenation. Pulmonary function test demonstrates a decrease in the forced vital capacity.
Causes[edit]
Restrictive lung diseases may be due to specific causes which can be intrinsic to the parenchyma of the lung, or extrinsic to it.[3]
Intrinsic[edit]
Pneumoconiosis caused by long-term exposure to dusts, especially in mining. For example, Asbestosis.
Radiation fibrosis, usually from the radiation given for cancer treatment.
Certain drugs such as amiodarone, bleomycin and methotrexate.
As a consequence of another disease such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis due to an allergic reaction to inhaled particles.
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a severe lung condition occurring in response to a critical illness or injury.
Infant respiratory distress syndrome due to a deficiency of surfactant in the lungs of a baby born prematurely.
24) OCCUPATIONAL LUNG DISEASE
Occupational lung diseases are occupational, or work-related, lung conditions that have been caused or made worse by the materials a person is exposed to within the workplace. It includes a broad group of diseases, including occupational asthma, industrial bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiolitis obliterans, inhalation injury, interstitial lung diseases (such as pneumoconiosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, lung fibrosis), infections, lung cancer and mesothelioma.[1][2] These diseases can be caused directly or due to immunological response to an exposure to a variety of dusts, chemicals, proteins or organisms.
Occupational cases of interstitial lung disease may be misdiagnosed as COPD, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or a myriad of other diseases; leading to a delay in identification of the causative agent.[3][4]
Bronchiolitis obliterans[edit]
Main article: Bronchiolitis obliterans
Bronchiolitis obliterans, also known as constrictive bronchiolitis or obliterative bronchiolitis is a respiratory disease caused by injury to the smallest airways, called bronchioles. It has been reported to occur from exposure to inhaled toxins and gases including sulfur mustard gas, nitrogen oxides, diacetyl (used in many food and beverage flavorings), 2,3-pentanedione, fly ash and fiberglass.[5]
COPD[edit]
Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a respiratory disease that can encompass chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. 15% of the cases of COPD in the United States can be attributed to occupational exposure, including exposure to silica and coal dust. People who work in mining, construction, manufacturing (specifically textiles, rubber, plastic, and leather), building, and utilities are at higher risk for COPD than the average US worker.[3]
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis[edit]
Main article: Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP; also called allergic alveolitis, bagpipe lung, or extrinsic allergic alveolitis, EAA) is an inflammation of the alveoli within the lung caused by hypersensitivity to inhaled organic dusts.[6]
25) DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs or pelvis.[8][a] Symptoms can include pain, swelling, redness, and enlarged veins in the affected area, but some DVTs have no symptoms.[1] The most life-threatening concern with DVT is the potential for a clot (or multiple clots) to detach, travel through the right side of the heart, and become stuck in arteries that supply blood to the lungs. This is called pulmonary embolism (PE). Both DVT and PE are considered as part of the same overall disease process, which is called venous thromboembolism (VTE). VTE can occur as an isolated DVT or as PE with or without DVT.[3] The most frequent long-term complication is post-thrombotic syndrome, which can cause pain, swelling, a sensation of heaviness, itching, and in severe cases, ulcers.[5] Also, recurrent VTE occurs in about 30% of those in the ten years following an initial VTE.[3]
The mechanism of clot formation typically involves some combination of decreased blood flow rate, increased tendency to clot, and injury to the blood vessel wall.[9] Risk factors include recent surgery, older age, active cancer, obesity, personal history and family history of VTE, trauma, injuries, lack of movement, hormonal birth control, pregnancy and the period following birth, and antiphospholipid syndrome. VTE has a strong genetic component, accounting for approximately 50 to 60% of the variability in VTE rates.[4] Genetic factors include non-O blood type, deficiencies of antithrombin, protein C, and protein S and the mutations of factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A. In total, dozens of genetic risk factors have been identified.[4][10]
People suspected of having a DVT can be assessed using a prediction rule such as the Wells score. A D-dimer test can also be used to assist with excluding the diagnosis or to signal a need for further testing.[5] Diagnosis is most commonly confirmed by ultrasound of the suspected veins.[5] An estimated 4–10% of DVTs affect the arms.[11] About 5–11% of people will develop VTE in their lifetime, with VTE becoming much more common with age.[12][13] When compared to those aged 40 and below, people aged 65 and above are at an approximate 15 times higher risk.[14] However, available data has been historically dominated by European and North American populations,[15] and Asian and Hispanic individuals have a lower VTE risk than whites or black
26) MITARAL STINOSIS
Mitral stenosis is a valvular heart disease characterized by the narrowing of the orifice of the mitral valve of the heart.[1] It is almost always caused by rheumatic valvular heart disease. Normally, mitral valve is about 5 cm2 during diastole. Any decrease in area below 2 cm2 causes mitral stenosis. Early diagnosis of mitral stenosis in pregnancy is very important as the heart cannot tolerate increased cardiac output demand as in the case of exercise and pregnancy. Atrial fibrillation is a common complication of resulting left atrial enlargement, which can lead to systemic thromboembolic complications like stroke.
27) PULMANORY INFRACTION
Lung infarction occurs when an artery to the lung becomes blocked and part of the lung dies.[1] It is most often caused by pulmonary embolism.
Because of the dual blood supply to the lungs from both the bronchial circulation and the pulmonary circulation, this tissue is more resistant to infarction. An occlusion of the bronchial circulation does not cause infarction, but it can still occur in pulmonary embolism when the pulmonary circulation is blocked and the bronchial circulation cannot fully compensate for it
Infarction is tissue death (necrosis) due to inadequate blood supply to the affected area. It may be caused by artery blockages, rupture, mechanical compression, or vasoconstriction.[1] The resulting lesion is referred to as an infarct[2][3] (from the Latin infarctus, "stuffed into").[4]
Infarction occurs as a result of prolonged ischemia, which is the insufficient supply of oxygen and nutrition to an area of tissue due to a disruption in blood supply. The blood vessel supplying the affected area of tissue may be blocked due to an obstruction in the vessel (e.g., an arterial embolus, thrombus, or atherosclerotic plaque), compressed by something outside of the vessel causing it to narrow (e.g., tumor, volvulus, or hernia), ruptured by trauma causing a loss of blood pressure downstream of the rupture, or vasoconstricted, which is the narrowing of the blood vessel by contraction of the muscle wall rather than an external force (e.g., cocaine vasoconstriction leading to myocardial infarction).
28) CERIBRO VASCULAR ACCIDENTS
Damage to the brain from interruption of its blood supply.
A stroke is a medical emergency.
Symptoms of stroke include trouble walking, speaking and understanding, as well as paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg.
Early treatment with medication like tPA (clot buster) can minimise brain damage. Other treatments focus on limiting complications and preventing additional strokes.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms of stroke include trouble walking, speaking and understanding, as well as paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg.
People may experience:
Muscular: difficulty walking, instability, paralysis with weak muscles, problems with coordination, stiff muscles, overactive reflexes, or paralysis of one side of the body
Visual: blurred vision, double vision, sudden visual loss, or temporary loss of vision in one eye
Speech: difficulty speaking, slurred speech, or speech loss
Whole body: fatigue, light-headedness, or vertigo
Limbs: numbness or weakness
Sensory: pins and needles or reduced sensation of touch
Facial: muscle weakness or numbness
Also common: difficulty swallowing, headache, inability to understand, mental confusion, or rapid involuntary eye movement
Treatment consists of blood thinners
Early treatment with medication like tPA (clot buster) can minimise brain damage. Other treatments focus on limiting complications and preventing additional strokes
29)RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints.[1] It typically results in warm, swollen, and painful joints.[1] Pain and stiffness often worsen following rest.[1] Most commonly, the wrist and hands are involved, with the same joints typically involved on both sides of the body.[1] The disease may also affect other parts of the body.[1] This may result in a low red blood cell count, inflammation around the lungs, and inflammation around the heart.[1] Fever and low energy may also be present.[1] Often, symptoms come on gradually over weeks to months.[2]
While the cause of rheumatoid arthritis is not clear, it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.[1] The underlying mechanism involves the body's immune system attacking the joints.[1] This results in inflammation and thickening of the joint capsule.[1] It also affects the underlying bone and cartilage.[1] The diagnosis is made mostly on the basis of a person's signs and symptoms.[2] X-rays and laboratory testing may support a diagnosis or exclude other diseases with similar symptoms.[1] Other diseases that may present similarly include systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriatic arthritis, and fibromyalgia among others.[2]
The goals of treatment are to reduce pain, decrease inflammation, and improve a person's overall functioning.[5] This may be helped by balancing rest and exercise, the use of splints and braces, or the use of assistive devices.[1][6][7] Pain medications, steroids, and NSAIDs are frequently used to help with symptoms.[1] Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as hydroxychloroquine and methotrexate, may be used to try to slow the progression of disease.[1] Biological DMARDs may be used when disease does not respond to other treatments.[8] However, they may have a greater rate of adverse effects.[9] Surgery to repair, replace, or fuse joints may help in certain situations.[1] Most alternative medicine treatments are not supported by evidence
30) ETIOLOGY OF ENCEPHALITIS
Encephalitis is most often due to a virus, such as:
herpes simplex viruses, which cause cold sores and genital herpes (this is the most common cause of encephalitis)
the varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles
viruses spread by animals, such as tick-borne encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, rabies (and possibly Zika virus)
Encephalitis caused by a virus is known as "viral encephalitis". In rare cases, encephalitis is caused by bacteria, fungi or parasites.
You can catch these infections from someone else, but encephalitis itself is not spread from person to person.
Problems with the immune system
The immune system protects the body from illness and infection. When germs enter the body, the immune system attacks them to stop them causing a serious infection.
But very rarely something goes wrong with the immune system and it mistakenly attacks the brain, causing encephalitis.
This can be triggered by:
a previous infection in another part of the body (which usually happens a few weeks earlier)
a non-cancerous or cancerous growth (tumour) somewhere in the body
a vaccination (this is very rare and the benefits of vaccination far outweigh the risk of encephalitis)
Encephalitis due to a reaction to a previous infection is known as "post-infectious encephalitis". If it's caused by a tumour or the cause is unknown, it's called "autoimmune encephalitis".
31) URINARY TRACT INFECTION
An infection in any part of the urinary system, the kidneys, bladder or urethra.
Urinary tract infections are more common in women. They usually occur in the bladder or urethra, but more serious infections involve the kidney.
A bladder infection may cause pelvic pain, increased urge to urinate, pain with urination and blood in the urine. A kidney infection may cause back pain, nausea, vomiting and fever.
Common treatment is with antibiotics.
Usually self-diagnosable
A bladder infection may cause pelvic pain, increased urge to urinate, pain with urination and blood in the urine. A kidney infection may cause back pain, nausea, vomiting and fever.
People may experience:
Pain areas: in the bladder, groin, lower abdomen, or pelvis
Pain circumstances: can occur during urination or during sexual intercourse
Urinary: foul smelling urine, frequent urination, bladder spasm, cloudy urine, dark urine, persistent urge to urinate, sense of incomplete bladder emptying, or blood in urine
Whole body: fatigue, fever, or malaise
Also common: cramping or vaginal irritation
Treatment consists of antibiotics
32) GESTSTIONAL DIABETES
A form of high blood sugar affecting pregnant women.
Those who develop gestational diabetes are at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.
In most cases, there are no symptoms. A blood sugar test during pregnancy is used for diagnosis.
Treatment strategies include daily blood sugar monitoring, a healthy diet, exercise and monitoring the baby. If blood sugar is too high, medication is required.
Requires a medical diagnosis
In most cases, there are no symptoms. A blood sugar test during pregnancy is used for diagnosis.
Can have no symptoms, but people may experience:
Whole body: excessive hunger, excessive thirst, or fatigue
Also common: fetal macrosomia, frequent urination, or thrush in men and women
Treatment consists of diet modifications
Treatment strategies include daily blood sugar monitoring, a healthy diet, exercise and monitoring the baby. If blood sugar is too high, medication is required.
33) LONG TERM COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES MELLITUS
Diabetes mellitus is a disease of metabolic dysregulation, most notably abnormal glucose metabolism, accompanied by characteristic long-term complications. The complications that are specific to diabetes include retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. Patients with all forms of diabetes of sufficient duration, including insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), are vulnerable to these complications, which cause serious morbidity (Table 1 and Table 2). Retinopathy is so characteristic of diabetes that its presence has been incorporated into the nosologic definition of NIDDM. Only hyperglycemia of sufficient magnitude to be associated with retinopathy is classified as NIDDM
34) CLINICAL PRESENTATION OF URINARY TRACT INFECTION
refer book
35) DIET AND DRUG MANAGEMENT FOR DIBETES MELLITUS
refer book
36) ORAL HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS
refer book
37)CAUSES OF SECONDARY OSTEOARTHRITIS
This type of osteoarthritis is caused by other factors but the resulting pathology is the same as for primary osteoarthritis:
Congenital disorders of joints
Diabetes doubles the risk of having a joint replacement due to osteoarthritis and people with diabetes have joint replacements at a younger age than those without diabetes.[24]
Inflammatory diseases (such as Perthes' disease), (Lyme disease), and all chronic forms of arthritis (e.g., costochondritis, gout, and rheumatoid arthritis). In gout, uric acid crystals cause the cartilage to degenerate at a faster pace.
Injury to joints or ligaments (such as the ACL), as a result of an accident or orthopedic operations.
Ligamentous deterioration or instability may be a factor.
38) CLASSIFICATION OF ACUTE RENAL FAILURE
Classification[edit]
Acute kidney injury is diagnosed on the basis of clinical history and laboratory data. A diagnosis is made when there is a rapid reduction in kidney function, as measured by serum creatinine, or based on a rapid reduction in urine output, termed oliguria (less than 400 mLs of urine per 24 hours).
AKI can be caused by systemic disease (such as a manifestation of an autoimmune disease, e.g. lupus nephritis), crush injury, contrast agents, some antibiotics, and more. AKI often occurs due to multiple processes. The most common cause is dehydration and sepsis combined with nephrotoxic drugs, especially following surgery or contrast agents.
The causes of acute kidney injury are commonly categorized into prerenal, intrinsic, and postrenal.
Acute kidney injury occurs in up to 30% of patients following cardiac surgery.[9] Mortality increases by 60-80% in post-cardiopulmonary bypass patients who go on to require renal replacement therapy. Preoperative creatinine greater than 1.2 mg/dL, combined valve and bypass procedures, emergency surgery, and preoperative intraaortic balloon pump are risk factors most strongly correlated with post-cardiopulmonary bypass acute kidney injury. Other well-known minor risk factors include: female gender, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, insulin-requiring diabetes, and depressed left ventricular ejection fraction
39) DERMATOMYOSITS
Dermatomyositis (DM) is a long-term inflammatory disorder which affects muscles.[1] Its symptoms are generally a skin rash and worsening muscle weakness over time.[1] These may occur suddenly or develop over months.[1] Other symptoms may include weight loss, fever, lung inflammation, or light sensitivity.[1] Complications may include calcium deposits in muscles or skin.[1]
The cause is unknown.[1] Theories include that it is an autoimmune disease or a result of a viral infection.[1] It is a type of inflammatory myopathy.[1] Diagnosis is typically based on some combination of symptoms, blood tests, electromyography, and muscle biopsies.[3]
While there is no known cure for the condition, treatments generally improve symptoms.[1] Treatments may include medication, physical therapy, exercise, heat therapy, orthotics, and assistive devices, and rest.[1] Medications in the corticosteroids family are typically used with other agents like methotrexate or azathioprine recommended if steroids are not working well.[1] Intravenous immunoglobulin may also improve outcomes.[1] Most people improve with treatment and in some the condition resolves completely.[1]
About 1 per 100,000 people per year are newly affected.[3] The condition usually occurs in those in their 40s and 50s with women being affected more often than men.
40) MYOPATHY
In medicine, myopathy is a disease of the muscle[1] in which the muscle fibers do not function properly. This results in muscular weakness. Myopathy means muscle disease (Greek : myo- muscle + patheia -pathy : suffering). This meaning implies that the primary defect is within the muscle, as opposed to the nerves ("neuropathies" or "neurogenic" disorders) or elsewhere (e.g., the brain). Muscle cramps, stiffness, and spasm can also be associated with myopathy.
Muscular disease can be classified as neuromuscular or musculoskeletal in nature. Some conditions, such as myositis, can be considered both neuromuscular and musculoskeletal.
Myopathies in systemic disease results from several different disease processes including endocrine, inflammatory, paraneoplastic, infectious, drug- and toxin-induced, critical illness myopathy, metabolic, collagen related,[2] and myopathies with other systemic disorders. Patients with systemic myopathies often present acutely or sub acutely. On the other hand, familial myopathies or dystrophies generally present in a chronic fashion with exceptions of metabolic myopathies where symptoms on occasion can be precipitated acutely. Most of the inflammatory myopathies can have a chance association with malignant lesion; the incidence appears to be specifically increased only in patients with dermatomyositis.[3]
There are many types of myopathy. ICD-10 codes are provided here where available.
41) MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves.
In MS, resulting nerve damage disrupts communication between the brain and the body.
Multiple sclerosis causes many different symptoms, including vision loss, pain, fatigue and impaired coordination. The symptoms, severity and duration can vary from person to person. Some people may be symptom free for most of their lives, while others can have severe, chronic symptoms that never go away.
Physiotherapy and medication that suppress the immune system can help with symptoms, and slow disease progression.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Multiple sclerosis causes many different symptoms, including vision loss, pain, fatigue and impaired coordination. The symptoms, severity and duration can vary from person to person. Some people may be symptom free for most of their lives, while others can have severe, chronic symptoms that never go away.
42) SYRINGOMYELIA
Syringomyelia is a generic term referring to a disorder in which a cyst or cavity forms within the spinal cord. This cyst, called a syrinx, can expand and elongate over time, destroying the spinal cord. The damage may result in loss of feeling, paralysis, weakness,[3] and stiffness in the back, shoulders, and extremities. Syringomyelia may also cause a loss of the ability to feel extremes of hot or cold, especially in the hands. It may also lead to a cape-like bilateral loss of pain and temperature sensation along the upper chest and arms. Each patient experiences a different combination of symptoms. These symptoms typically vary depending on the extent and, often more critically, on the location of the syrinx within the spinal cord.
Syringomyelia has a prevalence estimated at 8.4 cases per 100,000 people,[4] with symptoms usually beginning in young adulthood. Signs of the disorder tend to develop slowly, although sudden onset may occur with coughing, straining, or myelopathy.
Header Subtitle
43) TABES DORSALIS
Tabes dorsalis is a late consequence of neurosyphilis, characterized by the slow degeneration (specifically, demyelination) of the neural tracts primarily in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord ( nerve root ). These patients have lancinating nerve root pain which is aggravated by coughing, and features of sensory ataxia with ocular involvement.
Signs and symptoms may not appear for decades after the initial infection and include weakness, diminished reflexes, paresthesias (shooting and burning pains, pricking sensations, and formication), hypoesthesias (abnormally diminished cutaneous, especially tactile, sensory modalities), tabetic gait (locomotor ataxia), progressive degeneration of the joints, loss of coordination, episodes of intense pain and disturbed sensation (including glossodynia), personality changes, urinary incontinence, dementia, deafness, visual impairment, positive Romberg's test, and impaired response to light (Argyll Robertson pupil). The skeletal musculature is hypotonic due to destruction of the sensory limb of the spindle reflex. The deep tendon reflexes are also diminished or absent; for example, the "knee jerk" or patellar reflex may be lacking (Westphal's sign). A complication of tabes dorsalis can be transient neuralgic paroxysmal pain affecting the eyes and the ophthalmic areas, previously called "Pel's crises" after Dutch physician P.K. Pel. Now more commonly called "tabetic ocular crises", an attack is characterized by sudden, intense eye pain, tearing of the eyes and sensitivity to light
44) MYASTHERIA GRAVIS
A weakness and rapid fatigue of muscles under voluntary control.
The condition is caused by a breakdown in communication between nerves and muscles.
Symptoms include weakness in the arm and leg muscles, double vision and difficulties with speech and chewing.
Medication, therapy and surgery can help.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Symptoms include weakness in the arm and leg muscles, double vision and difficulties with speech and chewing.
People may experience:
Muscular: muscle weakness or weakness of the arms and legs
Facial: drooping of upper eyelid or muscle weakness
Also common: difficulty speaking, difficulty swallowing, double vision, fatigue, or shortness of breath
Treatment consists of steroids
Medication, therapy and surgery can help.
45) HYPERTENSION
A condition in which the force of the blood against the artery walls is too high.
Usually hypertension is defined as blood pressure above 140/90, and is considered severe if the pressure is above 180/120.
High blood pressure often has no symptoms. Over time, if untreated, it can cause health conditions, such as heart disease and stroke.
Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly and taking medication can help lower blood pressure.
Requires a medical diagnosis
Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.[10] High blood pressure typically does not cause symptoms.[1] Long-term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia.[2][3][4][11]
High blood pressure is classified as primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension.[5] About 90–95% of cases are primary, defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle and genetic factors.[5][6] Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol use.[1][5] The remaining 5–10% of cases are categorized as secondary high blood pressure, defined as high blood pressure due to an identifiable cause, such as chronic kidney disease, narrowing of the kidney arteries, an endocrine disorder, or the use of birth control pills
SHORT ANSWERS
(2MARKS)
1) DEFINE ANEMIA
Anemia is a condition in which you lack enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body's tissues. Having anemia can make you feel tired and weak. There are many forms of anemia, each with its own cause. Anemia can be temporary or long term, and it can range from mild to severe.Aug 16, 2019
Includes Diseases: Thalassemia; Iron-deficiency anemia...
Symptoms: Fatigue
2) HEMOPHILIA
Hemophilia is a rare disorder in which your blood doesn't clot normally because it lacks sufficient blood-clotting proteins (clotting factors). If you have hemophilia, you may bleed for a longer time after an injury than you would if your blood clotted normally.
3) DEFINE PNEMONIA
Pneumonia is an infection in one or both lungs. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause it. The infection causes inflammation in the air sacs in your lungs, which are called alveoli. The alveoli fill with fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe. Read on to learn more about pneumonia and how to treat it.Aug 20, 2019
Includes Diseases: Community-acquired pneumonia
Symptoms: Inflammation
4) TYPES OF ASTHMA
Adult-Onset Asthma. Can you get asthma as an adult? ...
Allergic Asthma. ...
Asthma-COPD Overlap. ...
Exercise-Induced Bronchoconstriction (EIB) ...
Nonallergic Asthma. ...
Occupational Asthma.
5)CLASSIFICATION OF BRONCHIECTASIS
Whitwell classified bronchiectasis into three different types: follicular, saccular, and atelectatic. Follicular bronchiectasis was the dominant form and this corresponded to tubular bronchiectasis (the main form commonly seen).
6) DEFINE TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis.
Frequency: 25% of people (latent TB)
Causes: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms: Chronic cough, fever, cough with b...
Specialty: Infectious disease, pulmonology
7) DEFINE HEART FAILURE
Heart failure, sometimes known as congestive heart failure, occurs when your heart muscle doesn't pump blood as well as it should. Certain conditions, such as narrowed arteries in your heart (coronary artery disease) or high blood pressure, gradually leave your heart too weak or stiff to fill and pump efficiently.May 29, 2020
Risk Factors: Coronary artery disease; Diabetes...
8) DEFINE HYPERTENSION
Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.[10] High blood pressure typically does not cause symptoms.[1] Long-term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia
9) DEFINE PULMONARUY INFRACTION
Lung infarction occurs when an artery to the lung becomes blocked and part of the lung dies.[1] It is most often caused by pulmonary embolism.
Because of the dual blood supply to the lungs from both the bronchial circulation and the pulmonary circulation, this tissue is more resistant to infarction. An occlusion of the bronchial circulation does not cause infarction, but it can still occur in pulmonary embolism when the pulmonary circulation is blocked and the bronchial circulation cannot fully compensate for it.
10) DEFINE EMBOLISM
An embolism is the lodging of an embolus, a blockage-causing piece of material, inside a blood vessel.[1] The embolus may be a blood clot (thrombus), a fat globule (fat embolism), a bubble of air or other gas (gas embolism), or foreign material. An embolism can cause partial or total blockage of blood flow in the affected vessel.[2] Such a blockage (a vascular occlusion) may affect a part of the body distant from the origin of the embolus. An embolism in which the embolus is a piece of thrombus is called a thromboembolism.
An embolism is usually a pathological event, i.e., accompanying illness or injury. Sometimes it is created intentionally for a therapeutic reason, such as to stop bleeding or to kill a cancerous tumor by stopping its blood supply. Such therapy is called embolization.
11) DEFINE INFECTIVE ENDOCARDITIS
Infective endocarditis is an infection in the heart valves or endocardium. The endocardium is the lining of the interior surfaces of the chambers of the heart. This condition is usually caused by bacteria entering the bloodstream and infecting the heart. Bacteria may originate in the: mouth
12) DEFINE OSTEOARTHRITIS
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting millions of people worldwide. It occurs when the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of your bones wears down over time. Although osteoarthritis can damage any joint, the disorder most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips and spine.
13) DEFINE SCLERODERMA
Scleroderma (sklair-oh-DUR-muh) is a group of rare diseases that involve the hardening and tightening of the skin and connective tissues. Scleroderma affects women more often than men and most commonly occurs between the ages of 30 and 50.May 18, 2019
Symptoms: Gastroesophageal reflux disease...
14) DEFINE MYOPATHY
In medicine, myopathy is a disease of the muscle[1] in which the muscle fibers do not function properly. This results in muscular weakness. Myopathy means muscle disease (Greek : myo- muscle + patheia -pathy : suffering). This meaning implies that the primary defect is within the muscle, as opposed to the nerves ("neuropathies" or "neurogenic" disorders) or elsewhere (e.g., the brain). Muscle cramps, stiffness, and spasm can also be associated with myopathy.
15) DEFINE DIABETES MELLITUS
Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin to meet its needs. Urination and thirst are increased, and people may lose weight even if they are not trying to. Diabetes damages the nerves and causes problems with sensation.
16) DEFINE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Inflammation of one or more joints, causing pain and stiffness that can worsen with age.
Different types of arthritis exist, each with different causes including wear and tear, infections and underlying diseases.
Symptoms include pain, swelling, reduced range of motion and stiffness.
Medication, physiotherapy or sometimes surgery helps reduce symptoms and improve quality of life.
17) DEFINE AUTO IMMUNITY
Autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an aberrant immune response is termed an "autoimmune disease".
18)TETANUS
A serious bacterial infection that causes painful muscle spasms and can lead to death.
Tetanus is a potentially fatal bacterial infection that affects the nerves. A vaccine can easily prevent the infection, which has no cure.
Tetanus causes painful muscle contractions, particularly in the jaw and neck. It can interfere with the ability to breathe, eventually causing death.
Treatment focuses on managing complications.
19) RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISEASE
Restrictive lung disease refers to a group of lung diseases that prevent the lungs from fully expanding with air. This restriction makes breathing difficult. Many forms of restrictive lung disease are progressive, getting worse over time. However, some causes of restrictive lung disease can be reversed.
20) OBESITY
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health. It is defined by body mass index (BMI) and further evaluated in terms of fat distribution via the waist–hip ratio and total cardiovascular risk factors.
Complications: Cardiovascular diseases, type 2 ...
Symptoms: Increased fat
Diagnostic method: BMI > 30 kg/m2
Causes: Excessive food, lack of exercise, gen...
21) ALZHEIMER DISEASE
A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions.
Brain cell connections and the cells themselves degenerate and die, eventually destroying memory and other important mental functions.
Memory loss and confusion are the main symptoms.
No cure exists, but medication and management strategies may temporarily improve symptoms.
22) TRANSVERSE MYELITIS
Transverse myelitis is an inflammation of both sides of one section of the spinal cord. This neurological disorder often damages the insulating material covering nerve cell fibers (myelin). Transverse myelitis interrupts the messages that the spinal cord nerves send throughout the body
23) THROMBOSIS
Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek θρόμβωσις thrómbōsis "clotting”) is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (thrombocytes) and fibrin to form a blood clot to prevent blood loss. Even when a blood vessel is not injured, blood clots may form in the body under certain conditions. A clot, or a piece of the clot, that breaks free and begins to travel around the body is known as an embolus.